Beyond the Charge: Interplay of Nanogels' Functional Group and Zeta-Potential for Antifungal Drug Delivery to Human Pathogenic Fungus Aspergillus Fumigatus.

The ubiquitous mold Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) is one of the main fungal pathogens causing invasive infections in immunocompromised humans. Conventional antifungal agents exhibit limited efficacy and often cause severe side effects. Nanoparticle-based antifungal delivery provides a promising alternative, which can increase local drug concentration; while, mitigating toxicity, thereby enhancing treatment efficacy. Previous research underscores the potential of poly(glycidol)-based nanogels (NG) with negative surface charge as carriers for delivering antifungals to A. fumigatus hyphae. In this study, NG is tailored with 2-carboxyethyl acrylate (CEA) or with phosphoric acid 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (PHA). It is discovered that quenching with PHA clearly improves the adhesion of NG to hyphal surface and the internalization of NG into the hyphae under protein-rich conditions, surpassing the outcomes of non-quenched and CEA-quenched NG. This enhancement cannot be solely attributed to an increase in negative surface charge but appears to be contingent on the functional group of the quencher. Further, it is demonstrated that itraconazole-loaded, PHA-functionalized nanogels (NGxPHA-ITZ) show lower MIC in vitro and superior therapeutic effect in vivo against A. fumigatus compared to pure itraconazole. This confirms NGxPHA as a promising antifungal delivery system.

Generic design principles for antibody-based tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 2 (TNFR2) agonists with FcγR-independent agonism.

Background: Selective TNFR2 activation can be used to treat immune pathologies by activating and expanding regulatory T-cells (Tregs) but may also restore anti-tumour immunity by co-stimulating CD8+ T-cells. Oligomerized TNFR2-specific TNF mutants or anti-TNFR2 antibodies can activate TNFR2 but suffer either from poor production and pharmacokinetics or in the case of anti-TNFR2 antibodies typically from the need of FcγR binding to elicit maximal agonistic activity. Methods: To identify the major factor(s) determining FcγR-independent agonism of anti-TNFR2 antibodies, we systematically investigated a comprehensive panel of anti-TNFR2 antibodies and antibody-based constructs differing in the characteristics of their TNFR2 binding domains but also in the number and positioning of the latter. Results: We identified the domain architecture of the constructs as the pivotal factor enabling FcγR-independent, thus intrinsic TNFR2-agonism. Anti-TNFR2 antibody formats with either TNFR2 binding sites on opposing sites of the antibody scaffold or six or more TNFR2 binding sites in similar orientation regularly showed strong FcγR-independent agonism. The affinity of the TNFR2 binding domain and the epitope recognized in TNFR2, however, were found to be of only secondary importance for agonistic activity. Conclusion: Generic design principles enable the generation of highly active bona fide TNFR2 agonists from nearly any TNFR2-specific antibody.

Brain-to-gut trafficking of alpha-synuclein by CD11c+ cells in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

Inflammation in the brain and gut is a critical component of several neurological diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). One trigger of the immune system in PD is aggregation of the pre-synaptic protein, α-synuclein (αSyn). Understanding the mechanism of propagation of αSyn aggregates is essential to developing disease-modifying therapeutics. Using a brain-first mouse model of PD, we demonstrate αSyn trafficking from the brain to the ileum of male mice. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the ileal αSyn aggregations are contained within CD11c+ cells. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we demonstrate that ileal CD11c+ cells are microglia-like and the same subtype of cells is activated in the brain and ileum of PD mice. Moreover, by utilizing mice expressing the photo-convertible protein, Dendra2, we show that CD11c+ cells traffic from the brain to the ileum. Together these data provide a mechanism of αSyn trafficking between the brain and gut.

Does medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw affect survival of patients with Multiple Myeloma?: Exploring a large single center database using artificial intelligence.

In addition to randomized clinical trials, consideration of Real-World Evidence is necessary for mirroring clinical reality. However, processing such evidence for large numbers of patients often requires considerable time and effort. This is particularly true for rare tumor diseases such as multiple myeloma (MM) or for adverse effects that occur even more rarely. In such cases, artificial intelligence is able to efficiently detect patients with rare conditions. One of these rare adverse events, and the most discussed, following bone protective treatment in MM is medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ). The association of bone protective treatment to MM outcome has been intensively studied. However, the impact of MRONJ resulting from such treatment on MM prognosis and outcome is poorly understood. In this retrospective study, we therefore investigated the long-term effects of MRONJ. We used natural language processing (NLP) to screen individual data of 2389 MM patients to find 50 out of 52 patients with MRONJ matching our inclusion criteria. To further improve data quality, we then performed propensity score matching. In comparison to MM patients without MRONJ, we found a significantly longer overall survival (median 126 vs. 86 months) despite slightly worse clinical features.

Enolase 1 of Candida albicans binds human CD4+ T cells and modulates naïve and memory responses.

To obtain a better understanding of the biology behind life-threatening fungal infections caused by Candida albicans, we recently conducted an in silico screening for fungal and host protein interaction partners. We report here that the extracellular domain of human CD4 binds to the moonlighting protein enolase 1 (Eno1) of C. albicans as predicted bioinformatically. By using different anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies, we determined that C. albicans Eno1 (CaEno1) primarily binds to the extracellular domain 3 of CD4. Functionally, we observed that CaEno1 binding to CD4 activated lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (LCK), which was also the case for anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies tested in parallel. CaEno1 binding to naïve human CD4+ T cells skewed cytokine secretion toward a Th2 profile indicative of poor fungal control. Moreover, CaEno1 inhibited human memory CD4+ T-cell recall responses. Therapeutically, CD4+ T cells transduced with a p41/Crf1-specific T-cell receptor developed for adoptive T-cell therapy were not inhibited by CaEno1 in vitro. Together, the interaction of human CD4+ T cells with CaEno1 modulated host CD4+ T-cell responses in favor of the fungus. Thus, CaEno1 mediates not only immune evasion through its interference with complement regulators but also through the direct modulation of CD4+ T-cell responses.

Linoleic acid potentiates CD8+ T cell metabolic fitness and antitumor immunity.

The metabolic state represents a major hurdle for an effective adoptive T cell therapy (ACT). Indeed, specific lipids can harm CD8+ T cell (CTL) mitochondrial integrity, leading to defective antitumor responses. However, the extent to which lipids can affect the CTL functions and fate remains unexplored. Here, we show that linoleic acid (LA) is a major positive regulator of CTL activity by improving metabolic fitness, preventing exhaustion, and stimulating a memory-like phenotype with superior effector functions. We report that LA treatment enhances the formation of ER-mitochondria contacts (MERC), which in turn promotes calcium (Ca2+) signaling, mitochondrial energetics, and CTL effector functions. As a direct consequence, the antitumor potency of LA-instructed CD8 T cells is superior in vitro and in vivo. We thus propose LA treatment as an ACT potentiator in tumor therapy.

ROCKETS - a novel one-for-all toolbox for light sheet microscopy in drug discovery.

Advancing novel immunotherapy strategies requires refined tools in preclinical research to thoroughly assess drug targets, biodistribution, safety, and efficacy. Light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) offers unprecedented fast volumetric ex vivo imaging of large tissue samples in high resolution. Yet, to date laborious and unstandardized tissue processing procedures have limited throughput and broader applications in immunological research. Therefore, we developed a simple and harmonized protocol for processing, clearing and imaging of all mouse organs and even entire mouse bodies. Applying this Rapid Optical Clearing Kit for Enhanced Tissue Scanning (ROCKETS) in combination with LSFM allowed us to comprehensively study the in vivo biodistribution of an antibody targeting Epithelial Cell Adhesion Molecule (EpCAM) in 3D. Quantitative high-resolution scans of whole organs did not only reveal known EpCAM expression patterns but, importantly, uncovered several new EpCAM-binding sites. We identified gustatory papillae of the tongue, choroid plexi in the brain and duodenal papillae as previously unanticipated locations of high EpCAM expression. Subsequently, we confirmed high EpCAM expression also in human tongue and duodenal specimens. Choroid plexi and duodenal papillae may be considered as particularly sensitive sites due to their importance for liquor production or as critical junctions draining bile and digestive pancreatic enzymes into the small bowel, respectively. These newly gained insights appear highly relevant for clinical translation of EpCAM-addressing immunotherapies. Thus, ROCKETS in combination with LSFM may help to set new standards for preclinical evaluation of immunotherapeutic strategies. In conclusion, we propose ROCKETS as an ideal platform for a broader application of LSFM in immunological research optimally suited for quantitative co-localization studies of immunotherapeutic drugs and defined cell populations in the microanatomical context of organs or even whole mice.

STAT1 overexpression triggers aplastic anemia: a pilot study unravelling novel pathogenetic insights in bone marrow failure.

We identified STAT1 gain of function (GOF) in a 32-year-old female with pallor, weakness, cough, and dyspnea admitted to our Division of Medicine. She had severe oral ulcers (OU), type 1 diabetes (T1DM), and pancytopenia. Bone marrow (BM) biopsy showed the absence of erythroid precursors. Peripheral blood parameters such as neutrophils < 500/mL, reticulocytes < 2%, and BM hypo-cellularity allowed to diagnose severe aplastic anemia. A heterozygous variant (p.520T>C, p.Cys174Arg) of STAT1 was uncovered. Thus, p.Cys174Arg mutation was investigated as potentially responsible for the patient's inborn immunity error and aplastic anemia. Although STAT1 GOF is rare, aplastic anemia is a more common condition; therefore, we explored STAT1 functional role in the pathobiology of BM failure. Interestingly, in a cohort of six patients with idiopathic aplastic anemia, enhanced phospho-STAT1 levels were observed on BM immunostaining. Next, the most remarkable features associated with STAT1 signaling dysregulation were examined: in both pure red cell aplasia and aplastic anemia, CD8+ T cell genetic variants and mutations display enhanced signaling activities related to the JAK-STAT pathway. Inborn errors of immunity may represent a paradigmatic condition to unravel crucial pathobiological mechanisms shared by common pathological conditions. Findings from our case-based approach and the phenotype correspondence to idiopathic aplastic anemia cases prompt further statistically powered prospective studies aiming to elucidate the exact role and theragnostic window for JAK/STAT targeting in this clinical context. Nonetheless, we demonstrate how a comprehensive study of patients with primary immunodeficiencies can lead to pathophysiologic insights and potential therapeutic approaches within a broader spectrum of aplastic anemia cases.

Corrigendum: A TNFR2-specific TNF fusion protein with improved in vivo activity.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.888274.].

Fibroblastic reticular cells mitigate acute GvHD via MHCII-dependent maintenance of regulatory T cells.

Acute graft versus host disease (aGvHD) is a life-threatening complication of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) inflicted by alloreactive T cells primed in secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) and subsequent damage to aGvHD target tissues. In recent years, Treg transfer and/or expansion has emerged as a promising therapy to modulate aGvHD. However, cellular niches essential for fostering Tregs to prevent aGvHD have not been explored. Here, we tested whether and to what extent MHC class II (MHCII) expressed on Ccl19+ fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) shape the donor CD4+ T cell response during aGvHD. Animals lacking MHCII expression on Ccl19-Cre-expressing FRCs (MHCIIΔCcl19) showed aberrant CD4+ T cell activation in the effector phase, resulting in exacerbated aGvHD that was associated with significantly reduced expansion of Foxp3+ Tregs and invariant NK T (iNKT) cells. Skewed Treg maintenance in MHCIIΔCcl19 mice resulted in loss of protection from aGvHD provided by adoptively transferred donor Tregs. In contrast, although FRCs upregulated costimulatory surface receptors, and although they degraded and processed exogenous antigens after myeloablative irradiation, FRCs were dispensable to activate alloreactive CD4+ T cells in 2 mouse models of aGvHD. In summary, these data reveal an immunoprotective, MHCII-mediated function of FRC niches in secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) after allo-HCT and highlight a framework of cellular and molecular interactions that regulate CD4+ T cell alloimmunity.

Lymphatic migration of unconventional T cells promotes site-specific immunity in distinct lymph nodes.

Lymphatic transport of molecules and migration of myeloid cells to lymph nodes (LNs) continuously inform lymphocytes on changes in drained tissues. Here, using LN transplantation, single-cell RNA-seq, spectral flow cytometry, and a transgenic mouse model for photolabeling, we showed that tissue-derived unconventional T cells (UTCs) migrate via the lymphatic route to locally draining LNs. As each tissue harbored a distinct spectrum of UTCs with locally adapted differentiation states and distinct T cell receptor repertoires, every draining LN was thus populated by a distinctive tissue-determined mix of these lymphocytes. By making use of single UTC lineage-deficient mouse models, we found that UTCs functionally cooperated in interconnected units and generated and shaped characteristic innate and adaptive immune responses that differed between LNs that drained distinct tissues. Lymphatic migration of UTCs is, therefore, a key determinant of site-specific immunity initiated in distinct LNs with potential implications for vaccination strategies and immunotherapeutic approaches.

A TNFR2-Specific TNF Fusion Protein With Improved In Vivo Activity.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-2 (TNFR2) has attracted considerable interest as a target for immunotherapy. Indeed, using oligomeric fusion proteins of single chain-encoded TNFR2-specific TNF mutants (scTNF80), expansion of regulatory T cells and therapeutic activity could be demonstrated in various autoinflammatory diseases, including graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). With the aim to improve the in vivo availability of TNFR2-specific TNF fusion proteins, we used here the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn)-interacting IgG1 molecule as an oligomerizing building block and generated a new TNFR2 agonist with improved serum retention and superior in vivo activity. Methods: Single-chain encoded murine TNF80 trimers (sc(mu)TNF80) were fused to the C-terminus of an in mice irrelevant IgG1 molecule carrying the N297A mutation which avoids/minimizes interaction with Fcγ-receptors (FcγRs). The fusion protein obtained (irrIgG1(N297A)-sc(mu)TNF80), termed NewSTAR2 (New selective TNF-based agonist of TNF receptor 2), was analyzed with respect to activity, productivity, serum retention and in vitro and in vivo activity. STAR2 (TNC-sc(mu)TNF80 or selective TNF-based agonist of TNF receptor 2), a well-established highly active nonameric TNFR2-specific variant, served as benchmark. NewSTAR2 was assessed in various in vitro and in vivo systems. Results: STAR2 (TNC-sc(mu)TNF80) and NewSTAR2 (irrIgG1(N297A)-sc(mu)TNF80) revealed comparable in vitro activity. The novel domain architecture of NewSTAR2 significantly improved serum retention compared to STAR2, which correlated with efficient binding to FcRn. A single injection of NewSTAR2 enhanced regulatory T cell (Treg) suppressive activity and increased Treg numbers by > 300% in vivo 5 days after treatment. Treg numbers remained as high as 200% for about 10 days. Furthermore, a single in vivo treatment with NewSTAR2 upregulated the adenosine-regulating ectoenzyme CD39 and other activation markers on Tregs. TNFR2-stimulated Tregs proved to be more suppressive than unstimulated Tregs, reducing conventional T cell (Tcon) proliferation and expression of activation markers in vitro. Finally, singular preemptive NewSTAR2 administration five days before allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) protected mice from acute GvHD. Conclusions: NewSTAR2 represents a next generation ligand-based TNFR2 agonist, which is efficiently produced, exhibits improved pharmacokinetic properties and high serum retention with superior in vivo activity exerting powerful protective effects against acute GvHD.

Minimal residual disease and imaging-guided consolidation strategies in newly diagnosed and relapsed refractory multiple myeloma.

Measurement of minimal residual disease (MRD) by next-generation flow cytometry (NGF) is an important tool to define deep responses in multiple myeloma (MM). However, little is known about the value of combining NGF with functional imaging and its role for MRD-based consolidation strategies in clinical routine. In the present study, we report our experience investigating these issues with 102 patients with newly diagnosed (n = 57) and relapsed/refractory MM (n = 45). Imaging was performed using either positron emission tomography or diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. In all, 45% of patients achieved MRD-negativity on both NGF and imaging (double-negativity), and 8% and 40% of patients were negative on either NGF or imaging respectively. Thus, in a minority of patients imaging was the only technique to detect residual disease. Imaging-positivity despite negativity on NGF was more common in heavily pretreated disease (four or more previous lines) compared to newly diagnosed MM (p < 0.01). Among the 29 patients undergoing MRD-triggered consolidation, 51% responded with MRD conversion and 21% with improved serological response. MRD-triggered consolidation led to superior progression-free survival (PFS) when compared to standard treatment (p = 0.04). In conclusion, we show that combining NGF with imaging is helpful particularly in patients with heavily pretreated MM, and that MRD-based consolidation could lead to improved PFS.

CD40- and 41BB-specific antibody fusion proteins with PDL1 blockade-restricted agonism.

Background: A strategy to broaden the applicability of checkpoint inhibitors is the combined use with antibodies targeting the immune stimulatory receptors CD40 and 41BB. However, the use of anti-CD40 and anti-41BB antibodies as agonists is problematic in two ways. First, anti-CD40 and anti-41BB antibodies need plasma membrane-associated presentation by FcγR binding to exert robust agonism but this obviously limits their immune stimulatory efficacy by triggering ADCC, CDC or anti-inflammatory FcγRIIb activities. Second, off tumor activation of CD40 and 41BB may cause dose limiting systemic inflammation. Methods: To overcome the FcγR-dependency of anti-41BB and anti-CD40 antibodies, we genetically fused such antibodies with a PDL1-specific blocking scFv as anchoring domain to enable FcγR-independent plasma membrane-associated presentation of anti-CD40- and anti-41BB antibodies. By help of GpL-tagged variants of the resulting bispecific antibodies, binding to their molecular targets was evaluated by help of cellular binding studies. Membrane PDL1-restricted engagement of CD40 and 41BB but also inhibition of PDL1-induced PD1 activation were evaluated in coculture assays with PDL1-expressing tumor cell lines and 41BB, CD40 and PD1 responsible cell lines or T-cells. Results: The binding properties of the bispecific antibody fusion proteins remained largely unchanged compared to their parental molecules. Upon anchoring to membrane PDL1, the bispecific antibody fusion proteins activated CD40/41BB signaling as efficient as the parental anti-CD40/anti-41BB antibodies when bound to FcγRs or cells expressing membrane-bound CD40L/41BBL. PD1 inhibition remained intact and the anti-41BB fusion protein thus showed PDL1-restricted costimulation of T-cells activated in vitro with anti-CD3 or a BiTe. Conclusions: Targeting of anti-CD40 and anti-41BB fusion proteins to membrane PDL1 with a blocking PDL1 scFv links PD1-PDL1 checkpoint blockade intrinsically with engagement of CD40 or 41BB.

Junctional adhesion molecule C expression specifies a CD138low/neg multiple myeloma cell population in mice and humans.

Deregulation such as overexpression of adhesion molecules influences cancer progression and survival. Metastasis of malignant cells from their primary tumor site to distant organs is the most common reason for cancer-related deaths. Junctional adhesion molecule-C (JAM-C), a member of the immunoglobulin-like JAM family, can homodimerize and aid cancer cell migration and metastasis. Here we show that this molecule is dynamically expressed on multiple myeloma (MM) cells in the bone marrow and co-localizes with blood vessels within the bone marrow of patients and mice. In addition, upregulation of JAM-C inversely correlates with the downregulation of the canonical plasma cell marker CD138 (syndecan-1), whose surface expression has recently been found to dynamically regulate a switch between MM growth in situ and MM dissemination. Moreover, targeting JAM-C in a syngeneic in vivo MM model ameliorates MM progression and improves outcome. Overall, our data demonstrate that JAM-C might serve not only as an additional novel diagnostic biomarker but also as a therapeutic target in MM disease.

Transient regulatory T-cell targeting triggers immune control of multiple myeloma and prevents disease progression.

Multiple myeloma remains a largely incurable disease of clonally expanding malignant plasma cells. The bone marrow microenvironment harbors treatment-resistant myeloma cells, which eventually lead to disease relapse in patients. In the bone marrow, CD4+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are highly abundant amongst CD4+ T cells providing an immune protective niche for different long-living cell populations, e.g., hematopoietic stem cells. Here, we addressed the functional role of Tregs in multiple myeloma dissemination to bone marrow compartments and disease progression. To investigate the immune regulation of multiple myeloma, we utilized syngeneic immunocompetent murine multiple myeloma models in two different genetic backgrounds. Analyzing the spatial immune architecture of multiple myeloma revealed that the bone marrow Tregs accumulated in the vicinity of malignant plasma cells and displayed an activated phenotype. In vivo Treg depletion prevented multiple myeloma dissemination in both models. Importantly, short-term in vivo depletion of Tregs in mice with established multiple myeloma evoked a potent CD8 T cell- and NK cell-mediated immune response resulting in complete and stable remission. Conclusively, this preclinical in-vivo study suggests that Tregs are an attractive target for the treatment of multiple myeloma.

Interleukin-23 receptor expressing γδ T cells locally promote early atherosclerotic lesion formation and plaque necrosis in mice.

AIMS: Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the vessel wall controlled by local and systemic immune responses. The role of interleukin-23 receptor (IL-23R), expressed in adaptive immune cells (mainly T-helper 17 cells) and γδ T cells, in atherosclerosis is only incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the vascular cell types expressing IL-23R and addressed the function of IL-23R and γδ T cells in atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: IL-23R+ cells were frequently found in the aortic root in contrast to the aorta in low-density lipoprotein receptor deficient IL-23R reporter mice (Ldlr-/-Il23rgfp/+), and mostly identified as γδ T cells that express IL-17 and GM-CSF. scRNA-seq confirmed γδ T cells as the main cell type expressing Il23r and Il17a in the aorta. Ldlr-/-Il23rgfp/gfp mice deficient in IL-23R showed a loss of IL-23R+ cells in the vasculature, and had reduced atherosclerotic lesion formation in the aortic root compared to Ldlr-/- controls after 6 weeks of high-fat diet feeding. In contrast, Ldlr-/-Tcrδ-/- mice lacking all γδ T cells displayed unaltered early atherosclerotic lesion formation compared to Ldlr-/- mice. In both HFD-fed Ldlr-/-Il23rgfp/gfp and Ldlr-/-Tcrδ-/- mice a reduction in the plaque necrotic core area was noted as well as an expansion of splenic regulatory T cells. In vitro, exposure of bone marrow-derived macrophages to both IL-17A and GM-CSF induced cell necrosis, and necroptotic RIP3K and MLKL expression, as well as inflammatory mediators. CONCLUSIONS: IL-23R+ γδ T cells are predominantly found in the aortic root rather than the aorta and promote early atherosclerotic lesion formation, plaque necrosis, and inflammation at this site. Targeting IL-23R may thus be explored as a therapeutic approach to mitigate atherosclerotic lesion development.

Mesenteric Lymph Node Transplantation in Mice to Study Immune Responses of the Gastrointestinal Tract.

Mesenteric lymph nodes (mLNs) are sentinel sites of enteral immunosurveillance and immune homeostasis. Immune cells from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) are constantly recruited to the mLNs in steady-state and under inflammatory conditions resulting in the induction of tolerance and immune cells activation, respectively. Surgical dissection and transplantation of lymph nodes (LN) is a technique that has supported seminal work to study LN function and is useful to investigate resident stromal and endothelial cell biology and their cellular interactions in experimental disease models. Here, we provide a detailed protocol of syngeneic mLN transplantation and report assays to analyze effective mLN engraftment in congenic recipients. Transplanted mLNs allow to study T cell activation and proliferation in preclinical mouse models. Donor mLNs proved viable and functional after surgical transplantation and regenerated blood and lymphatic vessels. Immune cells from the host completely colonized the transplanted mLNs within 7-8 weeks after the surgical intervention. After allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT), adoptively transferred allogeneic CD4+ T cells from FVB/N (H-2q) mice homed to the transplanted mLNs in C57BL/6 (H-2b) recipients during the initiation phase of acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD). These CD4+ T cells retained full proliferative capacity and upregulated effector and gut homing molecules comparable to those in mLNs from unmanipulated wild-type recipients. Wild type mLNs transplanted into MHCII deficient syngeneic hosts sufficed to activate alloreactive T cells upon allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation, even in the absence of MHCII+ CD11c+ myeloid cells. These data support that orthotopically transplanted mLNs maintain physiological functions after transplantation. The technique of LN transplantation can be applied to study migratory and resident cell compartment interactions in mLNs as well as immune reactions from and to the gut under inflammatory and non-inflammatory conditions.