Trait- and density-mediated effects of predation on fecundity and fertility of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes.

Prey populations that encounter predators experience density-mediated effects through lethality and associated numerical changes in the population. Prey also exhibit trait-mediated effects through nonlethal alterations in phenotypic traits associated with exposure to predators. Immature stages of mosquitoes commonly co-occur in habitats along with predators, a natural source of mortality and potential biocontrol agent. Toxorhynchites rutilus Coquillett 1896 is a natural source of mortality with potential as a biological control agent. Previous studies have shown that predation and the mere presence of Tx. rutilus (predator cues) can alter the life-history traits of Aedes aegypti (L. 1762). In addition to observed reductions in recruitment of adults (lethality), exposure to Tx. rutilus without consumption resulted in adult Ae. aegypti females with altered growth and reduced lifespan. To determine the influence of predation on the reproductive biology of Ae. aegypti, we tested the hypothesis that predation, or exposure to predator cues, will compromise the reproduction of adult survivors through reductions in fecundity (egg batch size) and fertility (hatch rate). We observed that for both female and male Ae. aegypti, survival to adulthood was the lowest and development time the shortest in treatments containing prey removal effects, attributable to predation and treatment manipulations of density reduction. There were effects of Ae. aegypti weight, but not predation treatments, on fecundity and fertility. Results suggest that predator-mediated effects on Ae. aegypti derive from lethal effects due to consumption and alterations in other phenotypic traits of survivors, including development, weight, lifespan of adults, and population growth, but not reproductive parameters measured here.

Linking nutrient stoichiometry to Zika virus transmission in a mosquito.

Food quality and quantity serve as the basis for cycling of key chemical elements in trophic interactions; yet the role of nutrient stoichiometry in shaping host-pathogen interactions is under appreciated. Most of the emergent mosquito-borne viruses affecting human health are transmitted by mosquitoes that inhabit container systems during their immature stages, where allochthonous input of detritus serves as the basal nutrients. Quantity and type of detritus (animal and plant) were manipulated in microcosms containing newly hatched Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae. Adult mosquitoes derived from these microcosms were allowed to ingest Zika virus-infected blood and then tested for disseminated infection, transmission, and total nutrients (percent carbon, percent nitrogen, ratio of carbon to nitrogen). Treatments lacking high-quality animal (insect) detritus significantly delayed development. Survivorship to adulthood was closely associated with the amount of insect detritus present. Insect detritus was positively correlated with percent nitrogen, which affected Zika virus infection. Disseminated infection and transmission decreased with increasing insect detritus and percent nitrogen. We provide the first definitive evidence linking nutrient stoichiometry to arbovirus infection and transmission in a mosquito using a model system of invasive Ae. aegypti and emergent Zika virus.

Mosquito responses to trait- and density-mediated interactions of predation.

Mosquito and predatory larvae often share the same habitat. Predators may influence mosquito prey populations through both lethal effect and non-lethal pathways. A series of experimental manipulations were used to distinguish between lethal (density-mediated interaction) and non-lethal (trait-mediated interaction) effects in a model system comprised of invasive prey mosquito, Aedes aegypti, and a predatory mosquito Toxorhynchites rutilus. Treatments with predators present or manipulations mimicking daily mortality (density reduction) reduced developmental time and recruitment to the adult stage. Daily records of adult survival of A. aegypti showed that exposure to predators during the juvenile stage shortened the lifespan of adults. This was also observed in treatments, where A. aegypti were replaced at the rate of consumption by T. rutilus. In contrast, numerical reductions in A. aegypti that mimicked daily rate of predation led to adults with the longest lifespan. These observations suggest strong effects of density and trait-mediated interactions in the influence of predators on mosquito biology relevant to their ability to transmit pathogens. These results have potentially important implications for disease control strategies. The primary approach to reduce risk of mosquito-borne diseases is through population reduction of the vectors. We show an unanticipated benefit of biological control by predation for the control of juvenile stages of mosquitoes. Specifically, mosquitoes that are exposed to predators but survive to adulthood will have compromised life expectancy, a key parameter in determining risk of disease transmission.