Determination of whey adulteration in milk powder by using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy.

A rapid and in situ method has been developed to detect and quantify adulterated milk powder through adding whey powder by using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The methodology is based on elemental composition differences between milk and whey products. Milk powder, sweet and acid whey powders were produced as standard samples, and milk powder was adulterated with whey powders. Based on LIBS spectra of standard samples and commercial products, species was identified using principle component analysis (PCA) method, and discrimination rate of milk and whey powders was found as 80.5%. Calibration curves were obtained with partial least squares regression (PLS). Correlation coefficient (R(2)) and limit of detection (LOD) values were 0.981 and 1.55% for adulteration with sweet whey powder, and 0.985 and 0.55% for adulteration with acid whey powder, respectively. The results were found to be consistent with the data from inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) method.

Simulation of laser propagation through a three-layer human skin model in the spectral range from 1000 to 1900 nm.

For understanding the mechanisms of low-level laser/light therapy (LLLT), accurate knowledge of light interaction with tissue is necessary. We present a three-dimensional, multilayer reduced-variance Monte Carlo simulation tool for studying light penetration and absorption in human skin. Local profiles of light penetration and volumetric absorption were calculated for uniform as well as Gaussian profile beams with different spreads over the spectral range from 1000 to 1900 nm. The results showed that lasers within this wavelength range could be used to effectively and safely deliver energy to specific skin layers as well as achieve large penetration depths for treating deep tissues, without causing skin damage. In addition, by changing the beam profile from uniform to Gaussian, the local volumetric dosage could increase as much as three times for otherwise similar lasers. We expect that this tool along with the results presented will aid researchers in selecting wavelength and laser power in LLLT.

Flux balancing of light and nutrients in a biofilm photobioreactor for maximizing photosynthetic productivity.

This article reports a combined experimental and numerical study on the efficient operation of Porous Substrate Bioreactors. A comprehensive model integrating light transport, mass transport, and algal growth kinetics was used to understand the productivity of photosynthetic biofilms in response to delivery rates of photons and nutrients. The reactor under consideration was an evaporation driven Porous Substrate Bioreactor (PSBR) cultivating the cyanobacteria Anabaena variabilis as a biofilm on a porous substrate which delivers water and nutrients to the cells. In an unoptimized experimental case, this reactor was operated with a photosynthetic efficiency of 2.3%, competitive with conventional photobioreactors. Moreover, through a scaling analysis, the location at which the phosphate delivery rate decreased the growth rate to half of its uninhibited value was predicted as a function of microorganism and bioreactor properties. The numerical model along with the flux balancing techniques presented herein can serve as tools for designing and selecting operating parameters of biofilm based cultivation systems for maximum productivity.

Rapid algal culture diagnostics for open ponds using multispectral image analysis.

This article presents a multispectral image analysis approach for probing the spectral backscattered irradiance from algal cultures. It was demonstrated how this spectral information can be used to measure algal biomass concentration, detect invasive species, and monitor culture health in real time. To accomplish this, a conventional RGB camera was used as a three band photodetector for imaging cultures of the green alga Chlorella sp. and the cyanobacterium Anabaena variabilis. A novel floating reference platform was placed in the culture, which enhanced the sensitivity of image color intensity to biomass concentration. Correlations were generated between the RGB color vector of culture images and the biomass concentrations for monocultures of each strain. These correlations predicted the biomass concentrations of independently prepared cultures with average errors of 22 and 14%, respectively. Moreover, the difference in spectral signatures between the two strains was exploited to detect the invasion of Chlorella sp. cultures by A. variabilis. Invasion was successfully detected for A. variabilis to Chlorella sp. mass ratios as small as 0.08. Finally, a method was presented for using multispectral imaging to detect thermal stress in A. variabilis. These methods can be extended to field applications to provide delay free process control feedback for efficient operation of large scale algae cultivation systems.

Cell to substratum and cell to cell interactions of microalgae.

This paper reports the cell to substratum and cell to cell interactions of a diverse group of microalgae based on the Extended Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, Overbeek (XDLVO) approach using the previously reported physico-chemical surface properties. The microalgae included 10 different species of green algae and diatoms from both freshwater and saltwater environments while the substrata included glass, indium-tin oxide (ITO), stainless steel, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and polystryrene. The results indicated that acid-base interactions were the dominating mechanism of interaction for microalgae. For green algae, if at least one of the interacting surfaces was hydrophobic, adhesion at primary minimum was predicted without any energy barrier. However, most diatom systems featured energy barriers for adhesion due to repulsive van der Waals interactions. The results reported in this study are expected to provide useful data and insight into the interaction mechanisms of microalgae cells with each other and with substrata for a number of practical applications including prevention of biofouling of photobioreactors and other man-made surfaces, promotion of biofilm formation in algal biofilm photobioreactors, and developing bioflocculation strategies for energy efficient harvesting of algal biomass. Particularly, Botryococcus braunii and Cerithiopsis fusiformis were identified as promising species for biofloccuation and biofilm formation in freshwater and saltwater aquatic systems, respectively. Finally, based on the observed trends in this study, use of hydrophilic algae and hydrophilic coatings over surfaces are recommended for minimizing biofouling in aquatic systems.

Physico-chemical surface properties of microalgae.

This study reports a comprehensive set of experimentally measured physico-chemical surface properties of 12 different microalgae including fresh and seawater species of green algae, diatoms and cyanobacteria. The surface free energy and its components including the acid-base (AB), van der Waals (LW), electron donor/acceptor parameters were quantified based on contact angle measurements along with the Lifshitz-van der Waals acid-base approach using the probe liquid surface tension parameters proposed by van Oss et al. as well as by Della Volpe and Siboni. Moreover, the zeta and surface potentials of all species were determined using electrophoretic mobility measurements along with using Smoluchowski's model. Finally, the free energy of cohesion of the microalgae was also determined based on the calculated surface energy properties. The results showed that the electron donor parameter correlated well with the free energy of cohesion in all groups of microalgae. Moreover, species known to form colonies and exhibit benthic cultures had distinctly hydrophobic surfaces compared to microalgae prefering planktonic growth. These results indicate the importance of surface hydrophobicity for causing biofouiling or flocculation of cultures. Finally, the zeta potentials did not show a distinctive trend with the types of microalgae but the surface potentials were markedly larger for the salt water species. The reported methods and data are expected to provide critical information for researchers and technology developers concerned with cell to cell and cell to substrata interactions of microalgae in algal biomass cultivation and harvesting, biofouling of membranes and surfaces, as well as cell-surface interactions in photosynthetic microbial fuel cell technologies.

Multispectral image analysis for algal biomass quantification.

This article reports a novel multispectral image processing technique for rapid, noninvasive quantification of biomass concentration in attached and suspended algae cultures. Monitoring the biomass concentration is critical for efficient production of biofuel feedstocks, food supplements, and bioactive chemicals. Particularly, noninvasive and rapid detection techniques can significantly aid in providing delay-free process control feedback in large-scale cultivation platforms. In this technique, three-band spectral images of Anabaena variabilis cultures were acquired and separated into their red, green, and blue components. A correlation between the magnitude of the green component and the areal biomass concentration was generated. The correlation predicted the biomass concentrations of independently prepared attached and suspended cultures with errors of 7 and 15%, respectively, and the effect of varying lighting conditions and background color were investigated. This method can provide necessary feedback for dilution and harvesting strategies to maximize photosynthetic conversion efficiency in large-scale operation.

Adhesion of algal cells to surfaces.

This paper reports the cell-substratum interactions of planktonic (Chlorella vulgaris) and benthic (Botryococcus sudeticus) freshwater green algae with hydrophilic (glass) and hydrophobic (indium tin oxide) substrata to determine the critical parameters controlling the adhesion of algal cells to surfaces. The surface properties of the algae and substrata were quantified by measuring contact angle, electrophoretic mobility, and streaming potential. Using these data, the cell-substratum interactions were modeled using thermodynamic, DLVO, and XDLVO approaches. Finally, the rate of attachment and the strength of adhesion of the algal cells were quantified using a parallel-plate flow chamber. The results indicated that (1) acid-base interactions played a critical role in the adhesion of algae, (2) the hydrophobic alga attached at a higher density and with a higher strength of adhesion on both substrata, and (3) the XDLVO model was the most accurate in predicting the density of cells and their strength of adhesion. These results can be used to select substrata to promote/inhibit the adhesion of algal cells to surfaces.

Energy return on investment for algal biofuel production coupled with wastewater treatment.

This study presents a second-order energy return on investment analysis to evaluate the mutual benefits of combining an advanced wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) (with biological nutrient removal) with algal biofuel production. With conventional, independently operated systems, algae production requires significant material inputs, which require energy directly and indirectly, and the WWTP requires significant energy inputs for treatment of the waste streams. The second-order energy return on investment values for independent operation of the WWTP and the algal biofuels production facility were determined to be 0.37 and 0.42, respectively. By combining the two, energy inputs can be reduced significantly. Consequently, the integrated system can outperform the isolated system, yielding a second-order energy return on investment of 1.44. Combining these systems transforms two energy sinks to a collective (second-order) energy source. However, these results do not include capital, labor, and other required expenses, suggesting that profitable deployment will be challenging.

Reduction of water and energy requirement of algae cultivation using an algae biofilm photobioreactor.

This paper reports the construction and performance of an algae biofilm photobioreactor that offers a significant reduction of the energy and water requirements of cultivation. The green alga Botryococcus braunii was cultivated as a biofilm. The system achieved a direct biomass harvest concentration of 96.4 kg/m(3) with a total lipid content 26.8% by dry weight and a productivity of 0.71 g/m(2) day, representing a light to biomass energy conversion efficiency of 2.02%. Moreover, it reduced the volume of water required to cultivate a kilogram of algal biomass by 45% and reduced the dewatering energy requirement by 99.7% compared to open ponds. Finally, the net energy ratio of the cultivation was 6.00 including dewatering. The current issues of this novel photobioreactor are also identified to further improve the system productivity and scaleup.

Rheological properties of algae slurries for minimizing harvesting energy requirements in biofuel production.

Rheological properties of microalgae slurries were measured as a function of biomass concentration from 0.5 to 80 kg/m(3) for Nannochloris sp., Chlorella vulgaris, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. At biomass concentrations smaller than 20 kg/m(3), all slurries displayed a Newtonian fluid behavior with less than 30% increase in the effective viscosity from that of the nutrient medium. However, at biomass concentrations larger than 60 kg/m(3), the slurries of the green algae, Nannochloris sp. and C. vulgaris, displayed a shear thinning non-Newtonian behavior with varying degrees of sensitivity to shear rate while that of the diatom, P. tricornutum, was still a Newtonian fluid up to 80 kg/m(3). Moreover, bioenergy pumping effectiveness showed significant deviation among different species in the non-Newtonian regime. Finally, dewatering the slurries to concentration factors larger than 80 did not further increase the total bioenergy harvest effectiveness.