Targeting of two aspects of metabolism in breast cancer treatment.

Deregulated metabolism is gaining recognition as a hallmark of cancer cells, and is being explored for therapeutic potential. The Warburg effect is a metabolic phenotype that occurs in 90% of tumors, where glycolysis is favored despite the presence of oxygen. Dichloroacetate (DCA) is a pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inhibitor that can reverse the Warburg effect. PENAO (4-(N-(S-penicillaminylacetyl)amino) phenylarsonous acid) is a novel anti-mitochondrial agent that targets the adenine nucleotide transporter in mitochondria and is currently in clinical trials for solid tumors. We have investigated the targeting of two aspects of metabolism, using DCA to promote mitochondrial activity combined with PENAO to inhibit mitochondrial activity, in breast and other carcinoma cell lines. PENAO was effective at low uM concentrations in luminal (T-47D) and triple negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells, in normoxia and hypoxia. The cytotoxicity of PENAO was enhanced by DCA by a mechanism involving increased reactive oxygen species in both T-47D and MDA-MB-231 cells, however further investigations found it did not always involve PDK2 inhibition or reduction of the mitochondrial membrane potential, which are the accepted mechanisms for DCA induction of apoptosis. Nevertheless, DCA sensitized all cancer cell lines tested toward apoptosis of PENAO. DCA and PENAO are both currently in clinical trials and targeting cancer metabolism with these drugs may offer options for difficult to treat cancers.

Accounting for the impact of conservation on human well-being.

Conservationists are increasingly engaging with the concept of human well-being to improve the design and evaluation of their interventions. Since the convening of the influential Sarkozy Commission in 2009, development researchers have been refining conceptualizations and frameworks to understand and measure human well-being and are starting to converge on a common understanding of how best to do this. In conservation, the term human well-being is in widespread use, but there is a need for guidance on operationalizing it to measure the impacts of conservation interventions on people. We present a framework for understanding human well-being, which could be particularly useful in conservation. The framework includes 3 conditions; meeting needs, pursuing goals, and experiencing a satisfactory quality of life. We outline some of the complexities involved in evaluating the well-being effects of conservation interventions, with the understanding that well-being varies between people and over time and with the priorities of the evaluator. Key challenges for research into the well-being impacts of conservation interventions include the need to build up a collection of case studies so as to draw out generalizable lessons; harness the potential of modern technology to support well-being research; and contextualize evaluations of conservation impacts on well-being spatially and temporally within the wider landscape of social change. Pathways through the smog of confusion around the term well-being exist, and existing frameworks such as the Well-being in Developing Countries approach can help conservationists negotiate the challenges of operationalizing the concept. Conservationists have the opportunity to benefit from the recent flurry of research in the development field so as to carry out more nuanced and locally relevant evaluations of the effects of their interventions on human well-being.

Estrogen controls the survival of BRCA1-deficient cells via a PI3K-NRF2-regulated pathway.

Mutations in the tumor suppressor BRCA1 predispose women to breast and ovarian cancers. The mechanism underlying the tissue-specific nature of BRCA1's tumor suppression is obscure. We previously showed that the antioxidant pathway regulated by the transcription factor NRF2 is defective in BRCA1-deficient cells. Reactivation of NRF2 through silencing of its negative regulator KEAP1 permitted the survival of BRCA1-null cells. Here we show that estrogen (E2) increases the expression of NRF2-dependent antioxidant genes in various E2-responsive cell types. Like NRF2 accumulation triggered by oxidative stress, E2-induced NRF2 accumulation depends on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-AKT activation. Pretreatment of mammary epithelial cells (MECs) with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor BKM120 abolishes the capacity of E2 to increase NRF2 protein and transcriptional activity. In vivo the survival defect of BRCA1-deficient MECs is rescued by the rise in E2 levels associated with pregnancy. Furthermore, exogenous E2 administration stimulates the growth of BRCA1-deficient mammary tumors in the fat pads of male mice. Our work elucidates the basis of the tissue specificity of BRCA1-related tumor predisposition, and explains why oophorectomy significantly reduces breast cancer risk and recurrence in women carrying BRCA1 mutations.

Phase II randomised proof-of-concept study of the urokinase inhibitor upamostat (WX-671) in combination with gemcitabine compared with gemcitabine alone in patients with non-resectable, locally advanced pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of the urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) inhibitor upamostat in combination with gemcitabine in locally advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma (LAPC). METHODS: Within a prospective multicenter study, LAPC patients were randomly assigned to receive 1000 mg m(-2) of gemcitabine IV weekly either alone (arm A) or in combination with 200 mg (arm B) or 400 mg (arm C) oral upamostat daily. Efficacy endpoints of this proof-of-concept study included response rate, time to first metastasis, progression-free and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Of the 95 enroled patients, 85 were evaluable for response and 93 for safety. Median OS was 12.5 months (95% CI 8.2-18.2) in arm C, 9.7 months (95% CI 8.4-17.1) in arm B and 9.9 months (95% CI 7.4-12.1) in arm A; corresponding 1-year survival rates were 50.6%, 40.7% and 33.9%, respectively. More patients achieved a partial remission (confirmed responses by RECIST) with upamostat combination therapy (arm C: 12.9%; arm B: 7.1%; arm A: 3.8%). Overall, only 12 patients progressed by developing detectable distant metastasis (arm A: 4, arm B: 6, arm C: 2). The most common adverse events considered to be related to upamostat were asthenia, fever and nausea. CONCLUSION: In this proof-of-concept study targeting the uPA system in LAPC, the addition of upamostat to gemcitabine was tolerated well; similar survival results were observed for the three treatment arms.

The molecular design of S-nitrosothiols as photodynamic agents for controlled nitric oxide release.

Nitric oxide is a small messenger molecule utilized by nature in cell signalling and the non-specific immune response. At present, nitric oxide releasing prodrugs cannot be efficiently targeted towards a specific body compartment, which restricts their therapeutic applications. To address this limitation, we have designed two photolabile nitric oxide releasing prodrugs, tert-butyl S-nitrosothiol and tert-dodecane S-nitrosothiol, which are based on the S-nitrosothiol functionality. By modulating the prodrugs' hydrophobicity, we postulated that we could increase their stability within the cell by preventing their interaction with hydrophilic thiols and metal ions; processes that are known to inactivate this prodrug class. Our data demonstrate that these prodrugs have improved nitric oxide release kinetics compared to currently available S-nitrosothiols, as they are highly stable in vitro in the absence of irradiation (t(1/2) > 3 h), while their rate of decomposition can be regulated by controlling the intensity or duration of the photostimulus. Nitric oxide release can readily be achieved using non-laser based light sources, which enabled us to characterize photoactivation as a trigger mechanism for nitric oxide release in A549 lung carcinoma cells. Here we confirmed that irradiation induced highly significant increases in cytotoxicity within a therapeutic drug range (1-100 µm), and the utility of this photoactivation switch opens up avenues for exploring the applications of these prodrugs for chemical biology studies and chemotherapy.

Reduced metal ion concentrations in atherosclerotic plaques from subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

AIMS: Transition metal ions have been implicated in atherosclerosis. The goal of this study was to investigate whether metal ion levels were higher in people with diabetes, in view of their increased risk of aggravated atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Absolute concentrations of iron, copper, zinc and calcium, and products of protein and lipid oxidation were quantified in atherosclerotic lesions from subjects with (T2DM, n=27), without Type 2 diabetes (nonDM, n=22), or hyperglycaemia (HG, n=17). Iron (P<0.05), zinc (P<0.01) and calcium (P=0.01) were lower in T2DM compared to nonDM subjects. Copper levels were comparable. A strong correlation (r=0.618; P<0.001) between EPR-detectable and total iron in nonDM patients was not seen in T2DM. X-ray fluorescence microscopy revealed "hot spots" of iron in both T2DM and nonDM. Calcium and zinc co-localised and levels correlated strongly. F(2)-isoprostanes (P<0.05) and di-Tyr/Tyr ratio (P<0.025), oxidative damage markers were decreased in T2DM compared to nonDM, or HG. CONCLUSION: Advanced atherosclerotic lesions from T2DM subjects unexpectedly contained lower levels of transition metal ions, and protein and lipid oxidation products, compared to nonDM and HG. These data do not support the hypothesis that elevated metal ion levels may be a major causative factor in the aggravated atherosclerosis observed in T2DM patients.

In vitro characterization of the subharmonic ultrasound signal from Definity microbubbles at high frequencies.

Ultrasound microbubble contrast agents have been demonstrated to scatter subharmonic energy at one-half the driving frequency. At ultrasound frequencies in the 20-40 MHz range, the subharmonic offers the potential to differentiate the blood in the microcirculation from the surrounding tissue. It is unknown whether current contrast agents, manufactured to be resonant between 2 and 12 MHz, are ideal for subharmonic imaging at higher frequencies. We performed numerical simulations of the Keller-Miksis model for the behavior of a single bubble and experimental investigations of Definity microbubbles in water. The results supported the hypothesis that off-resonant bubbles, excited at their second harmonic, may be primarily responsible for the observed subharmonic energy. For frequencies between 20 and 32 MHz and 32 and 40 MHz, the optimal bubble diameters for the generation of subharmonics in vitro were determined experimentally to be 1.2-5 microm and less than 1.2 microm, respectively. Definity may be a suitable ultrasound contrast agent for subharmonic imaging at 20 MHz with peak-negative pressures between 380 and 590 kPa and pulses greater than or equal to four cycles in duration.

Ensembl 2004.

The Ensembl (http://www.ensembl.org/) database project provides a bioinformatics framework to organize biology around the sequences of large genomes. It is a comprehensive and integrated source of annotation of large genome sequences, available via interactive website, web services or flat files. As well as being one of the leading sources of genome annotation, Ensembl is an open source software engineering project to develop a portable system able to handle very large genomes and associated requirements. The facilities of the system range from sequence analysis to data storage and visualization and installations exist around the world both in companies and at academic sites. With a total of nine genome sequences available from Ensembl and more genomes to follow, recent developments have focused mainly on closer integration between genomes and external data.

A critical overview of model estimates of net primary productivity for the Australian continent.

Net primary production links the biosphere and the climate system through the global cycling of carbon, water and nutrients. Accurate quantification of net primary productivity (NPP) is therefore critical in understanding the response of the world's ecosystems to global climate change, and how changes in ecosystems might themselves feed back to the climate system.

Ensembl 2002: accommodating comparative genomics.

The Ensembl (http://www.ensembl.org/) database project provides a bioinformatics framework to organise biology around the sequences of large genomes. It is a comprehensive source of stable automatic annotation of human, mouse and other genome sequences, available as either an interactive web site or as flat files. Ensembl also integrates manually annotated gene structures from external sources where available. As well as being one of the leading sources of genome annotation, Ensembl is an open source software engineering project to develop a portable system able to handle very large genomes and associated requirements. These range from sequence analysis to data storage and visualisation and installations exist around the world in both companies and at academic sites. With both human and mouse genome sequences available and more vertebrate sequences to follow, many of the recent developments in Ensembl have focusing on developing automatic comparative genome analysis and visualisation.

B-scan ultrasound imaging of thermal coagulation in bovine liver: frequency shift attenuation mapping.

Thermal therapy is an experimental procedure to treat localised tumours in, for example, the prostate, liver, kidney or breast. Following work that demonstrated a marked increase in the ultrasound (US) attenuation of tissues heated above 65 degrees C, US attenuation estimation is proposed as a method to monitor the progression and extent of thermal therapy. In this study, B-scan attenuation mapping techniques, based on the shift in centre frequency of the US signal, are examined. A simple technique based on the change of phase of the quadrature-demodulated signal is presented and analysed. Autoregressive analysis is also examined. It is shown with simulated data that these methods are effective at differentiating and localizing the attenuation change associated with tissue coagulation, but that, in the analysis of phantom or ex vivo bovine liver data, electronic noise severely limits the effectiveness of these techniques.

B-scan ultrasound imaging of thermal coagulation in bovine liver: log envelope slope attenuation mapping.

Thermal therapy is an experimental procedure to treat localised tumours in the prostate, liver, kidney or breast. Monitoring is important to ensure complete tumour destruction while sparing adjacent sensitive structures. Previous work demonstrated that, when biological tissues are heated above 65 degrees C, ultrasound (US) attenuation increases due to thermal coagulation of tissue. This study examined the feasibility of a B-scan, envelope-based attenuation estimation method to monitor thermal therapy. The slope of the log of the signal envelope was used to estimate attenuation. It is shown that this method is able to demonstrate, from simulated and phantom data, a limited ability to differentiate attenuation levels that correspond to thermally coagulated and uncoagulated beef liver. In ex vivo bovine liver, however, issues due to signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the signal envelope prevented the visulisation of a 2-cm diameter thermally coagulated inclusion. The limitations of this method are extended to the multinarrow-band (MNB) technique.

Phase I trial of XR9576 in healthy volunteers demonstrates modulation of P-glycoprotein in CD56+ lymphocytes after oral and intravenous administration.

XR9576 is a novel inhibitor of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) that has been shown to reverse P-gp-dependent multidrug-resistance in tumor cell lines and tumor-bearing animals. Here we report the first i.v. and p.o. administration to healthy volunteers of XR9576 in dose-escalating studies with the aim of investigating its effects on safety, its pharmacokinetics, and a surrogate marker of efficacy. XR9576 was administered as a single dose-upward titration of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, and 2 mg/kg XR9576 i.v. or 50, 100, 200, 500, and 750 mg/volunteer p.o. The surrogate marker for in vivo efficacy examined the accumulation of the P-gp substrate Rhodamine-123 (Rh-123) in P-gp-expressing CD56+ lymphocytes by flow cytometry. Addition of Rh-123 to blood samples from subjects given XR9576 or a placebo demonstrated drug-dependent modulation of P-gp activity. Even at the lowest doses, significant effects were observed on Rh-123 accumulation in CD56+ cells. Maximal effects were seen during the i.v. infusion or 4-6 h after oral administration. As the dose was increased, a concomitant rise in the level and duration of P-gp blockade was observed. A dose of 2.0 mg/kg i.v. and > or = 200 mg/volunteer p.o. gave approximately 100% inhibition of P-gp for in excess of 24 h. All doses of XR9576 were well tolerated. Inhibition increased with XR9576 plasma concentration, and maximal activity was achieved at 150-200 ng/ml XR9576. In conclusion, XR9576 has demonstrated sustained inhibition of P-gp after i.v. and oral administration and, supported by the elimination half-life of about 24 h, XR9576 is being taken into Phase II as a once-daily agent.

In vivo efficacy of XR9051, a potent modulator of P-glycoprotein mediated multidrug resistance.

Overexpression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a potential cause of multidrug resistance (MDR) in tumours. We have previously reported that XR9051 (N-(4-(2-(6,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-isoquinolyl)ethyl)phe nyl)-3-((3Z,6Z)-6-benzylidene-1-methyl-2,5-dioxo-3-pipera zinylidene)methylbenzamide) is a potent and specific inhibitor of P-gp, which reverses drug resistance in several murine and human MDR cell lines. In this study we have evaluated the in vivo efficacy of this novel modulator in a panel of murine and human tumour models and examined its pharmacokinetic profile. Efficacy studies in mice bearing MDR syngeneic tumours (P388/DX Johnson, MC26) or human tumour xenografts (A2780AD, CH1/DOXr, H69/LX) demonstrated that co-administration of XR9051 significantly potentiated the anti-tumour activity of a range of cytotoxic drugs. This modulatory activity was observed following parenteral and oral co-administration of XR9051. In addition, the combination schedules were well-tolerated. Following intravenous administration in mice, XR9051 is rapidly distributed and accumulates in tumours and other tissues. In addition, the compound is well-absorbed after oral administration. These data suggest that XR9051 has the potential for reversing clinical MDR mediated by P-glycoprotien.

Reversal of P-glycoprotein-mediated multidrug resistance by XR9051, a novel diketopiperazine derivative.

XR9051 (N-(4-(2-(6,7-Dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-isoquinolyl)ethyl)phe nyl)-3-((3Z,6Z)-6-benzylidene-1-methyl-2,5-dioxo-3-pipera zinylidene) methylbenzamide) was identified as a potent modulator of P-glycoprotein-mediated multidrug resistance (MDR) following a synthetic chemistry programme based on a natural product lead compound. The activity of XR9051 was determined using a panel of human and murine drug-resistant cell lines (H69/LX4, 2780AD, EMT6/AR 1.0, MC26 and P388/DX Johnson). XR9051 was able to reverse resistance to a variety of cytotoxic drugs, including doxorubicin, etoposide and vincristine, which are associated with classical MDR. At a concentration of 0.3-0.5 microM, XR9051 was able to fully sensitize resistant cells to cytotoxics, whereas little or no effect was observed on the corresponding parental cell lines. No effect of XR9051 was observed on the response of cells to non-MDR cytotoxics such as methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil. XR9051 was consistently more potent than cyclosporin A (CsA) and verapamil (Vpm) in all assays used. XR9051 inhibited the efflux of [3H]daunorubicin from preloaded cells and, unlike CsA and Vpm, remained active for several hours after removal of resistance-modifying agent. In photoaffinity labelling experiments employing [3H]azidopine, XR9051 was able to displace binding to P-glycoprotein. In binding studies using [3H]vinblastine, XR9051 was shown to be a potent inhibitor of the binding of the cytotoxic to P-glycoprotein (EC50 = 1.4 +/- 0.5 nM). Taken together, the results indicate that XR9051 reverses the MDR phenotype through direct interaction with P-glycoprotein.

Regulation of neuronal and recombinant GABA(A) receptor ion channels by xenovulene A, a natural product isolated from Acremonium strictum.

Xenovulene A (XR368) is a natural product exhibiting little structural resemblance with classical benzodiazepines yet is able to displace high-affinity ligand binding to the benzodiazepine site of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor. We have characterized this compound and an associated congener (XR7009) by use of radioligand binding and electrophysiological methodologies with native neurons and the Xenopus oocyte expression system. Xenovulene A, and the more potent XR7009, inhibited [3H]flunitrazepam binding to rat forebrain with Ki values of 7 and 192 nM, and 1.7 and 42 nM, respectively, each site accounting for approximately 50% of the total specific binding. In cerebellar and spinal cord membranes, these ligands identified only single binding sites. These ligands demonstrated no intrinsic agonist activity at recombinant GABA(A) receptors comprising alpha1beta1gamma2S subunits expressed in Xenopus oocytes, yet at 1 microM both significantly potentiated the GABA-induced response and reduced the GABA EC50 from 10.9 (control) to 5.1 (Xenovulene A) or 2.7 microM (XR7009). The rank potency order for enhancement of the 10 microM GABA response is: XR7009 (EC50, 0.02 microM) > diazepam (0.03) > Xenovulene A (0.05) > flurazepam (0.17). The activity of XR368 and XR7009 was reduced by the benzodiazepine antagonist, flumazenil, and absent in receptors devoid of the gamma2 subunit. These agents exhibited receptor subtype selectivity because alpha3beta1gamma2S receptors were less sensitive to these compounds relative to alpha1 subunit-containing receptors, whereas alpha6beta1gamma2S receptors were completely insensitive. Potentiation of the response to GABA on native GABA(A) receptors in cortical neurons substantiates the profile of the novel structures of Xenovulene A and XR7009 as specific benzodiazepine agonists.

Novel low-molecular-weight inhibitor of PAI-1 (XR5118) promotes endogenous fibrinolysis and reduces postthrombolysis thrombus growth in rabbits.

BACKGROUND: Elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) have been associated with the occurrence of thrombotic disease, and inhibition of PAI-1 activity in vivo resulted in enhanced thrombolysis and a reduction in reocclusion. Besides monoclonal antibodies and peptides, no suitable agents that are able to block PAI-1 activity are available to date. The present study was designed to test the interaction between a nonantibody, nonpeptide, diketopiperazine-based inhibitor of PAI-1, XR5118, and PAI-1 and to assess the effect of XR5118 on PAI-1 activity in vitro and on in vivo thrombolysis and thrombus growth in an experimental thrombosis model in rabbits. METHODS AND RESULTS: The binding site of XR5118 on the PAI-1 molecule was studied by competitive binding experiments with mapped anti-PAI-1 monoclonal antibodies by use of surface plasmon resonance experiments. XR5118 selectively and competitively inhibited binding of the PAl-1-inhibiting monoclonal antibody CLB-2C8, indicating that binding of XR5118 to PAI-1 takes place at the area between amino acids 110 and 145 of the PAI-1 molecule, which is known to be involved with the binding of PAI-1 to tissue plasminogen activator (TPA). Incubation of plasma or platelet releasate with XR5118 resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of PAI-1 activity. Systemic infusion of XR5118 induced a significant reduction in plasma PAI-1 activity levels from 23.7+/-4.9 to 10.9+/-3.4 IU/mL. Administration of XR5118 resulted in a significant, twofold increase in endogenous thrombolysis compared with the control. Thrombus growth in rabbits receiving both XR5118 and rTPA was significantly attenuated compared with rabbits receiving rTPA alone (13.5+/-2.7% versus 19.9+/-3.8%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: XR5118 binds to PAI-1 and reduces plasma PAI-1 activity levels. Furthermore, XR5118 promotes endogenous thrombolysis and inhibits thrombus accretion and is the first nonpeptide compound with significant anti-PAI-1 activity in vivo in these models.