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Brexpiprazole is a new antipsychotic drug from the group of dopamine D2/D3 receptor partial agonists. It represents a development of the second-generation antipsychotics and is an important addition to the pharmacological treatment options for schizophrenia. The purpose of this article is to present, illustrated by the case of brexpiprazole, how advances in the pharmacological properties of new antipsychotics translate into improved results in the treatment of schizophrenia, not only in terms of symptom reduction, but also in terms of functional improvement. The ratio of activation to blocking of the D2/D3 receptor is lower for brexpiprazole than for aripiprazole and cariprazine, which may translate into a lower risk of akathisia. Brexpiprazole has also stronger antihistaminic activity, which is likely to be associated with a stronger sedative effect, a lower risk of akathisia, excessive agitation and insomnia. Brexpiprazole meets the traditional requirements for an antipsychotic drug's efficacy, i.e., compared to placebo, it brings a greater reduction in schizophrenia symptoms in short-term studies and prevents schizophrenia relapses in long-term follow-up. The highest antipsychotic efficacy was found with the highest registered dose (4 mg/day). In addition to reducing positive symptoms, brexpiprazole treatment also leads to a reduction in negative and depressive symptoms, as well as anxiety. It has also a positive effect on patients' social and personal functioning and quality of life. This action of the drug is in line with the expectations of patients and their families regarding effective treatment. It should not only reduce symptoms, but also enable a return to health, i.e., a state that, in addition to optimal health and a sense of psychological well-being, also makes it possible to maintain proper social relations.
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Antipsicóticos , Quinolonas , Esquizofrenia , Tiofenos , Humanos , Tiofenos/uso terapêutico , Tiofenos/efeitos adversos , Tiofenos/farmacologia , Quinolonas/uso terapêutico , Quinolonas/efeitos adversos , Esquizofrenia/tratamento farmacológico , Antipsicóticos/uso terapêutico , Antipsicóticos/efeitos adversos , Resultado do Tratamento , Agonistas de Dopamina/uso terapêutico , Agonistas de Dopamina/efeitos adversos , Receptores de Dopamina D2/agonistas , Receptores de Dopamina D2/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The European Psychiatric Association (EPA) is an organization that speaks on behalf of its individual members and members of National Psychiatric Associations (NPAs). The aim of this study to identify and investigate current contents of ethical codes and practices in the countries belonging to EPA. METHODS: The study is an expert survey sent out to 44 representatives of 30 NPAs covering the following topics: the existence of national bodies dealing with ethical issues in psychiatry, the availability of documents relevant to ethical issues, the types of ethical issues addressed at the national level, and the current and envisaged ethical debates. RESULTS: Out of 44 experts invited to participate in the study, 31 NPAs from 30 countries responded (response rate 70.45%). In the majority of countries, the general mission statement serves as the main document covering ethical issues in psychiatry. Most frequently, internal documents were reported to address medical malpractice, workplace bullying, plagiarism, academic fraud, sexual abuse, and discrimination/racism. Furthermore, internal documents cover the ethical assessment of potentially controversial procedures, including psychosurgery, euthanasia, and pregnancy termination. The most important topics for debate at the level of NPAs/EPA were associated with violations of clinical practice standards and human rights. CONCLUSIONS: NPAs are active in the field of professional ethics, defining ethical standards related to interactions among professionals and services provided by mental health care professionals. Future collaboration of NPAs, under the umbrella of the EPA, could allow to develop a database of local ethical documents that would be translated into English and accessible to all EPA members.
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Psiquiatria , Humanos , Europa (Continente) , Inquéritos e QuestionáriosRESUMO
Insomnia is one of the most common health problems in developed countries. Its prevalence increases with age, with up to one in two people over the age of 65 experiencing symptoms of insomnia. The older people are also the patients who mostly commonly are among chronic sleep medication users. The aim of this article is to present the current recommendations for the management of insomnia in people over 65 years of age. The recommendations were prepared as a position of an expert panel, which included people from a number of clinical disciplines: family medicine, cardiology, psychiatry, sleep medicine and clinical psychopharmacology. The first step in treating sleep disorders is to establish proper diagnosis and, if possible, to initiate causal treatment. Moreover, cognitive and behavioural therapy for insomnia should also be used as the primary form of treatment, which can be supplemented, if not sufficiently effective, with pharmacological treatment. The main group of drugs used for treating insomnia are nonbenzodiazepine sedative hypnotics (zolpidem, zopiclone, eszopiclone, zaleplon). However, these drugs do not fully meet the needs of people over 65 years of age, primarily with regard to treatment safety. Therefore other classes of medicines, which are used for treatment of mental disorders, are prescribed off-label in this group of patients. Melatonin in a prolonged-release form is also indicated for this age group due to the high safety of the therapy. The management of insomnia in people over 65 years of age is a challenging task, given the need to seek compromise between treatment efficacy and safety. The treatment plan also has to take into account comorbidities as well as drugs used to treat them.
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Distúrbios do Início e da Manutenção do Sono , Humanos , Idoso , Distúrbios do Início e da Manutenção do Sono/diagnóstico , Distúrbios do Início e da Manutenção do Sono/tratamento farmacológico , Polônia , Medicina de Família e Comunidade , Sono , Hipnóticos e Sedativos/uso terapêuticoRESUMO
Purpose: A survey of epilepsy patients' experiences of and attitudes towards the pharmacy switching of anti-epileptic medications. Methods: A structured questionnaire was administered to a group of epilepsy patients treated at the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology and the Medical University of Silesia, Poland. Two hundred and eleven patients (mean [± SD] age: 41.0 ± 15.6 years) were recruited; 60.6% were women. 68.2% had been treated for over 10 years. Results: Most individuals (63%) claimed that they had never bought a generic substitute medication. Among the patients who declared that a switch had been proposed to them at a pharmacy (~40%), only 68.7% received any explanation at all from a pharmacist. Some reported positive emotions mostly related to a lower price of the new drug but also to the explanations received. Most respondents who accepted the pharmacy switch (67.4%) did not notice any significant changes in the efficacy or tolerability of treatment, while the remaining subjects reported an increase in seizure frequency (23.2%) and deterioration in treatment tolerance (9%). Conclusions: Around 40% of Polish epilepsy patients have been confronted with a proposal to switch their anti-epileptic medications at a pharmacy. More of them report negative attitudes towards the pharmacist's proposal than do not. It is possible that one of the major reasons for this is the insufficient information provided by pharmacists. It remains to be established whether the reported decrease in seizure control could be accounted for by a low concentration of the anti-epileptic drug in the blood after the switch.
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Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are involved in the pathophysiology of neurological disorders such as dementia, stroke and traumatic brain injury (TBI), and constitute molecular targets of high interest for the therapy of these pathologies. In this review we provide an overview of current knowledge of the definition, discovery and mode of action of five NTFs, nerve growth factor, insulin-like growth factor 1, brain derived NTF, vascular endothelial growth factor and tumor necrosis factor alpha; as well as on their contribution to brain pathology and potential therapeutic use in dementia, stroke and TBI. Within the concept of NTFs in the treatment of these pathologies, we also review the neuropeptide preparation Cerebrolysin, which has been shown to resemble the activities of NTFs and to modulate the expression level of endogenous NTFs. Cerebrolysin has demonstrated beneficial treatment capabilities in vitro and in clinical studies, which are discussed within the context of the biochemistry of NTFs. The review focuses on the interactions of different NTFs, rather than addressing a single NTF, by outlining their signaling network and by reviewing their effect on clinical outcome in prevalent brain pathologies. The effects of the interactions of these NTFs and Cerebrolysin on neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, angiogenesis and inflammation, and their relevance for the treatment of dementia, stroke and TBI are summarized.
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Lesões Encefálicas Traumáticas , Demência , Fármacos Neuroprotetores , Acidente Vascular Cerebral , Humanos , Fator A de Crescimento do Endotélio Vascular , Acidente Vascular Cerebral/tratamento farmacológico , Lesões Encefálicas Traumáticas/tratamento farmacológico , Demência/tratamento farmacológico , Fármacos Neuroprotetores/farmacologia , Fármacos Neuroprotetores/uso terapêuticoRESUMO
no summary.
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Transtornos Mentais , Humanos , Polônia , Transtornos Mentais/terapia , Benzodiazepinas/uso terapêuticoRESUMO
Alcohol addiction is one of the most common health problems. Long-term consumption of high doses of ethanol leads to numerous adaptive changes in the central and peripheral nervous systems, most notably a decrease in the activity of inhibitory GABAergic pathways and an increase in the activity of excitatory glutamatergic pathways. Up to half of patients may develop alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) when they stop drinking alcohol. This article contains the recommendations of the Polish Psychiatric Association and the Pharmacotherapy Section of the Polish Society for Addiction Research for the pharmaco�therapy of AWS. This paper presents the aetiopathogenesis, neurotransmitter and receptor mechanisms, symptoms and diagnostic criteria of AWS, medications used in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndromes, management of uncomplicated and complicated alcohol withdrawal syndromes, and discusses the management of special populations. Firstline drugs in the management of AWS are benzodiazepines (BDZ). Most studies have not shown a su�periority of any BDZ in the treatment of AWS. The decision to choose a formulation should be based on its pharmacokinetic properties, comorbidities, and the patient's current condi�tion. The most commonly used BDZs are diazepam, lorazepam, oxazepam, and clorazepate.
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Alcoolismo , Síndrome de Abstinência a Substâncias , Humanos , Síndrome de Abstinência a Substâncias/tratamento farmacológico , Alcoolismo/tratamento farmacológico , Polônia , Benzodiazepinas/uso terapêutico , Etanol/efeitos adversosRESUMO
Schizophrenia is the subject of many studies. There have been reports of taste disturbances in mental disorders. We found a possible relationship between deficit symptoms of schizophrenia and the dysgeusia of monosodium glutamate (MSG). Dysgeusia is a disorder that distorts the sense of taste. People describe all foods as tasting sweet, sour, bitter, or metallic. We aimed to verify whether the level of MSG taste perception may be related to the severity of deficit symptoms. MSG detection threshold was assessed via sublingual administration of three fluid samples containing MSG or water. The MSG samples had different concentrations in each sample. The task was to indicate which of the samples contained MSG, determine the intensity of the taste, and assess the taste as pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. The study group included 200 patients diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia according to ICD-10. We found a significant negative correlation between mean intensity of taste and the number of deficit symptoms. The symptoms of taste disturbances reported by the patient should be monitored by clinicians and differentiated between the actual deficits in the field of taste perception and the taste hallucinations as a symptom of psychosis. It is important to continue research in this area.
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RATIONALE: We have discovered that rats at the age of 18 months begin to twitch their heads spontaneously (spontaneous head twitching, SHT). To date, no one has described this phenomenon. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to characterize SHT pharmacologically and to assess some possible mechanisms underlying SHT. METHODS: Wistar male rats were used in the study. Animals at the age of 18 months were qualified as HSHT (SHT ≥ 7/10 min observations) or LSHT (SHT < 7/10 min observations). Quantitative real-time PCR with TaqMan low-density array (TLDA) approach was adopted to assess the mRNA expression of selected genes in rat's hippocampus. RESULTS: HSHT rats did not differ from LSHT rats in terms of survival time, general health and behavior, water intake, and spontaneous locomotor activity. 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg increased the SHT in HSHT and LSHT rats, while ketanserin dose-dependently abolished the SHT in the HSHT rats. The SHT was reduced or abolished by olanzapine, clozapine, risperidone, and pimavanserin. All these drugs have strong 5-HT2A receptor-inhibiting properties. Haloperidol and amisulpride, as antipsychotic drugs with a mostly dopaminergic mechanism of action, did not influence SHT. Similarly, escitalopram did not affect SHT. An in-depth gene expression analysis did not reveal significant differences between the HSHT and the LSHT rats. CONCLUSIONS: SHT appears in some aging rats (about 50%) and is permanent over time and specific to individuals. The 5-HT2A receptor strongly controls SHT. HSHT animals can be a useful animal model for studying 5-HT2A receptor ligands.
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Antipsicóticos , Clozapina , Ratos , Animais , Masculino , Ratos Wistar , Receptor 5-HT2A de Serotonina , Ketanserina/farmacologia , Antipsicóticos/farmacologiaRESUMO
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is one of the most frequent mental disorders. Exposure to virtual reality can be a solution complementing standard CBT (cognitive-behavioral therapy) or can be used as an independent therapeutic tool. The study's objective was to assess the safety and efficacy of using self-administered virtual reality exposure vs. CBT and CBT with virtual exposure. We assessed the efficacy of the applied intervention with the Leibowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS). We compared three groups: CBT (n = 25), CBT + VR (n = 29), and self-administered therapy without aid of a therapist (n = 19). The results indicated that all three groups showed changes on the LSAS. The simple effect analysis showed that there were no differences between experimental conditions at T0 (session 1) and T1 (session 9) and that the only significant difference occurred at T2 (session 14). The pairwise comparisons showed that the participants in the VR condition scored higher on the LSAS score during the measurement at T2 than participants in CBT condition. Our study has several limitations. The presented initial study shows that the methods of CBT for social anxiety used so far are also effective, while the VR tool for self-therapy requires further research.
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Aims: The impact of bipolar spectrum (BS) disorders on professional functioning has not been systematically reviewed yet. Since even subsyndromal symptoms may disturb functioning, the determination of the prognostic value of the spectrum of bipolarity for employment seems extremely relevant. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of BS disorders on professional functioning. Materials and methods: A systematic review of the literature (namely, cohort and cross-sectional studies) investigating a link between BS disorders and employment was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. BS was defined based on the concept of two-dimensional BS by Angst. Occupational outcomes and factors affecting employment were evaluated as well. Results: Seventy-four studies were included. All disorders comprising BS had a negative impact on occupational status, work performance, work costs, and salary, with the greatest unfavorable effect reported by bipolar disorder (BD), followed by borderline personality disorder (BPD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and dysthymia. Employment rates ranged from 40 to 75% (BD), 33 to 67% (BPD), 61 to 88% (MDD), and 86% (dysthymia). The factors affecting employment most included: cognitive impairments, number/severity of symptoms, namely, subsyndromal symptoms (mainly depressive), older age, education, and comorbidity (substance abuse, personality disorders, anxiety, depression, ADHD, PTSD). Conclusion: Bipolar spectrum symptoms exert a negative impact on professional functioning. Further evaluation of affecting factors is crucial for preventing occupational disability.
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PURPOSE: Both depression and loneliness have been recognized as major public health issues, yet investigation into their role among young and middle-aged, professionally active persons is still required. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether depression and loneliness may independently predict inefficiency at work among professionally active adults. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study on a representative, nationwide sample. 1795 questionnaires were gathered from among professionally active adults from Poland from 1 to 31 July 2018 with a direct pen-and-paper interview. The sample was chosen by means of the stratified random method. The survey included a Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to measure depression and questions, devised by the authors, relating to loneliness and inefficiency at work. Regression models were constructed with depression and loneliness as predictors of inefficiency at work, unadjusted and adjusted for selected sociodemographic, health- and work-related factors. RESULTS: In the unadjusted models, both depression and loneliness were independently associated with an increase of work inefficiency and absence from work, with effect sizes being higher for loneliness than for depression. After accounting for the control variables (i.e., sociodemographic, work- and health-related factors), the PHQ-9 score, but not the loneliness score, was associated with an increased probability of frequent thoughts about changing or leaving a job. CONCLUSION: Depression and loneliness independently predicted occupational functioning and differentially affect its various aspects. Counteracting depression and loneliness among employees should be regarded as a public health priority.
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Depressão , Solidão , Adulto , Estudos Transversais , Depressão/epidemiologia , Humanos , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Apoio Social , Inquéritos e QuestionáriosRESUMO
INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: A link between psychiatric comorbidities and overactive bladder symptomatology has been suggested by preclinical and clinical studies. Given this, we hypothesized that a psychiatric history and current treatment with psychotropic medications could be related to the severity of overactive bladder and incontinence symptoms in patients referred to a tertiary care urogynecological center. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-seven female patients diagnosed with an overactive bladder were screened for a lifetime history of psychiatric disorders and the type and number of psychotropic medications currently taken. The overall severity of overactive bladder symptoms was assessed using the Indevus Urgency Severity Scale. The severity and impact of urinary incontinence on the quality of life were quantified with the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Urinary Incontinence Short Form. Urinary incontinence was further quantified with the aid of the Urinary Distress Inventory-6. The patients were screened for stress urinary incontinence using the Stamey Incontinence Score. RESULTS: A psychiatric history, as well as current use of at least two psychotropic medications, was associated with increased severity of overactive bladder symptoms. A history of depression and current treatment with any selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor was associated with increased severity of stress urinary incontinence symptoms. Current treatment with other psychotropic medications, including sedative-hypnotics and drugs with anticholinergic properties was not related to the severity of overactive bladder and incontinence symptoms.
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Overactive Bladder (OAB) is a common condition that is known to have a significant impact on daily activities and quality of life. The pathophysiology of OAB is not completely understood. One of the new hypothetical causative factors of OAB is dysbiosis of an individual urinary microbiome. The major aim of the present review was to identify data supporting the role of bacterial colonization in overactive bladder symptoms in children and adolescents. The second aim of our study was to identify the major gaps in current knowledge and possible areas for future clinical research. There is a growing body of evidence indicating some relationship between qualitative and quantitative characteristics of individual urinary microbiome and OAB symptoms in adult patients. There are no papers directly addressing this issue in children or adolescents. After a detailed analysis of papers relating urinary microbiome to OAB, the authors propose a set of future preclinical and clinical studies which could help to validate the concept in the pediatric population.
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Purpose: This study aimed to assess the influence of somatic diseases and patient characteristics (age, gender) in relation to delirium tremens (DT) episodes in alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS). We also analysed the influence of age, gender and specific somatic diseases on the duration of hospital stay and the frequency of comorbid somatic diseases among AWS and DT patients. Methods: The medical records of patients admitted to an AWS treatment ward in a Polish psychiatric hospital in 2019 were analysed. In total, 800 hospitalisations of 656 patients (625 hospitalisations for AWS and 175 for DT) were evaluated. Results: The most frequent group of somatic diseases among AWS and DT patients was cardiovascular diseases, with essential hyper tension as the main medical condition. Patients suffering from DT were diagnosed with respiratory system diseases (p < 0.001) and pneumonia (p < 0.000) more often than AWS patients. Hospital stays were longer for patients with pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and duodenal ulcers. Patients with acute pancreatitis were hospitalised for a significantly shorter period of time than other patients. Patient gender and age did not significantly affect the development of DT. However, age was positively correlated with duration of hospitalisation (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The presence of respiratory system diseases, especially pneumonia, was found to influence the incidence of DT in AWS patients. Increased clinical vigilance for the prevention of lower airway infections in AWS patients is essential.
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Purpose: The aim of the present study was to assess attitudes of Polish neurologists towards cigarette smoking and their real-life anti-smoking practices. Methods: A study questionnaire was constructed, and distributed among Polish neurologists (n = 101; 73% females). More than two thirds (70%) of the study group worked in in-patient neurological wards with separate stroke units. Results: Seventy five percent of the study group documented the smoking status of their patients in medical files. Two thirds of the study group collected data on patient's cigarette smoking during each visit. Only 54% and 22% of study participants routinely assessed the severity of tobacco dependence and diagnosed tobacco dependence according to the ICD-10 criteria, respectively. Two thirds of physicians declared routinely using any anti-smoking intervention, but only 12% used the recommended 5'A (Ask, Advice, Assess, Assist, Arrange) model of behavioral intervention and only 11% introduced Evidence Based Medicine (EBM)-supported pharmacotherapy. The vast majority of study participants (80%) did not try to increase their professional skills in anti-smoking interventions. Conclusions: Real-life anti-smoking practices among Polish neurologists are generally unsatisfactory and do not follow EBM-based guidelines. The low percentage of neurologists who diagnose and treat nicotine dependence may negatively impact the efficacy of secondary stroke prevention in Poland.
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This consensus statement has been prepared by a group of experts consisting of professionals with long experience in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, who were appointed by the Management Board of the Polish Psychiatric Association. The evaluation involved the analysis of literature databases and information derived from meta-analyses of these data for years 2010-2020. The searched publications were in English, German and Polish language versions and involved interventions performed in groups of adult patients. The efficacy of nonpharmacological methods applied for treatment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia were compared with effects of adifferent treatment/combined treatment/a group with no intervention. When formulating the recommendations, the experts analysed the source data in terms of their application in the Polish conditions. The current recommendations of academic societies and literature on the treatment of schizophrenia with predominant negative symptoms were taken into account. The experts included items that involved a comparison of a study group in terms of non-pharmacological interventions, and pharmacologically treated cases were taken into account only when divisions were made into standard treatment and additional intervention. The results were divided into 7 sections: 1. Psychoeducation, 2. Psychotherapy (individual, group and family therapy), 3. Psychiatric rehabilitation, 4. Emotional intelligence, social skills and mindfulness training, 5. Cognitive remediation/rehabilitation, cognitive training, 6. Clinical efficacy of physical activity, behavioral activation and metacognitive training, 7. Other rehabilitation methods (including biological methods). The recommendations were debated by experts, approved by the Management Board of the Polish Psychiatric Association,and -upon consideration of the submitted comments - adopted as aconsensus statement of the Association with the recommendation of their application in the treatment of schizophrenic patients in Poland.
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Esquizofrenia , Adulto , Humanos , Idioma , Polônia , Psicoterapia , Esquizofrenia/terapiaRESUMO
D2/D3 dopamine receptor partial agonists (aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, cariprazine) are increasingly often used in the treatment of mental disorders due to a more favourable tolerability profile as compared to other antipsychotics. The article presents the position statement on the use of these drugs in the treatment of special populations: people with comorbid somatic diseases, people over 65 years of age, including those with dementia, children and adolescents, pregnant and breastfeeding women. The position statement was developed by the panel of experts appointedby the Executive Board of the Polish Psychiatric Association consisting of people experienced in the treatment of patients with mental disorders. The evaluation included the analysis of literature databases and information obtained from summaries of product characteristics, as well as reports and registers on the safety of the three evaluated drugs. D2/D3 dopamine receptor partial agonists can be used in the treatment of people who must be provided with the highest safety standards of the therapy. It results from their low risk of producing side effects, such as weight gain, metabolic disorders, akathisia, extrapyramidal symptoms, increased prolactin levels, prolongation of QTinterval in ECG, sedation and anticholinergic effects. Since dopamine receptor partial agonists are available for arelatively short time, there is less information on their use in pregnant women than for other antipsychotics.
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Antipsicóticos , Esquizofrenia , Adolescente , Antipsicóticos/efeitos adversos , Criança , Agonistas de Dopamina/efeitos adversos , Feminino , Humanos , Polônia , Gravidez , Receptores de Dopamina D2 , Receptores de Dopamina D3/uso terapêutico , Esquizofrenia/tratamento farmacológicoRESUMO
Aripiprazole, cariprazine and brexpiprazole are antipsychotic drugs (APD) whose action is associated with partial agonism at the dopamine D2/D3 receptors. They are increasingly more widely used in clinical practice, also off-label. The aim of this article is to present the current state of knowledge on the use of these drugs in the treatment of mental disorders. The position statement was developed by the panel of experts appointedby the Executive Board of the Polish Psychiatric Association, consisting of individuals with many years of experience in treating patients with mental disorders. The evaluation included the analysis of literature databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane) and information obtained from metaanalyses and summaries of product characteristics. A key property of D2/D3 partial agonists is that they display diverse effects on dopamine pathways: (a) blockade of mesolimbic signalling that is overactive in the acute phase of schizophrenia and mania, (b) stimulation of mesocortical pathways with an improvement (or at least with no deterioration) of cognitive functions and negative symptoms, (c) no blockade of the tuberoinfundibular pathway and, consequently, low risk of increased prolactin secretion, (d) no blockade of nigrostriatal pathway and, consequently, low risk of extrapyramidal symptoms. Selective profile of action and intrinsic activity at dopamine D2 (aripiprazole > brexpiprazole) and D3 (cariprazine) receptors in combination with the lack of antihistamine and anticholinergic properties make aripiprazole, brexpiprazole and cariprazine different form other APD in terms of their safety and tolerability. This is the reason for the increasing use of these drugs in the treatment of schizophrenia and mood disorders, and in the case of aripiprazole also in obsessive-compulsive, autism-spectrum and tic disorders.