The impact of genetic risk for schizophrenia on eating disorder clinical presentations.

A growing body of literature recognizes associations between eating disorders (EDs) and schizophrenia and suggests that familial liability to schizophrenia in individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) reveals distinct patterns of clinical outcomes. To further investigate the influence of schizophrenia genetic liability among individuals with EDs, we evaluated the associations between schizophrenia polygenic risk scores (PRS) and clinical presentations of individuals with EDs including their overall health condition and ED-related symptoms. Using data from two previous studies of the genetics of EDs comprising 3,573 Anorexia Nervosa Genetics Initiative (ANGI) cases and 696 Binge Eating Genetics Initiative (BEGIN) cases born after 1973 and linked to the Swedish National Patient Register, we examined the association of schizophrenia PRS on ED clinical features, psychiatric comorbidities, and somatic and mental health burden. Among ANGI cases, higher schizophrenia PRS was statistically significantly associated with higher risk of major depressive disorder (MDD) measured by hazard ratio (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) (HR [95% CI]: 1.07 [1.02, 1.13]) and substance abuse disorder (SUD) (HR [95% CI]: 1.14 [1.03, 1.25]) after applying multiple testing correction. Additionally, higher schizophrenia PRS was associated with decreased clinical impairment assessment scores (-0.56, 95% CI: [-1.04, -0.08]) at the conventional significance level (p < 0.05). Further, in BEGIN cases, higher schizophrenia PRS was statistically significantly associated with earlier age at first ED symptom (-0.35 year, 95% CI: [-0.64, -0.06]), higher ED symptom scores (0.16, 95% CI: [0.04, 0.29]), higher risk of MDD (HR [95% CI]: 1.18 [1.04, 1.34]) and SUD (HR [95% CI]: 1.36 [1.07, 1.73]). Similar, but attenuated, patterns held in the subgroup of exclusively AN vs other eating disorder (OED) cases. These results suggest a similar pattern of influence of schizophrenia PRS for AN and OED cases in terms of psychiatric comorbidities, but a different pattern in terms of ED-related clinical features. The disparity of the effect of schizophrenia PRS on AN vs OED merits further investigation.

Proposal for increasing diagnostic clarity in research and clinical practice by renaming and reframing atypical anorexia nervosa as "Restrictive Eating Disorder" (RED).

Atypical anorexia nervosa (AAN) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), is characterized by meeting all criteria for anorexia nervosa (AN) except for weight being within or above the "normal" range despite significant weight loss. The current definition is plagued by several problems, resulting in widely heterogeneous operationalizations in research and clinical practice. As such, the poorly defined diagnosis of AAN negatively impacts affected individuals and frustrates research attempts to better understand the syndrome. We consider conceptual flaws in the AAN description and contend that the undefined weight range and nature of weight loss renders these two factors functionally inapplicable in research and practice. They also represent a departure from the originally intended use of the AAN category, i.e., arresting a negative weight trajectory likely to result in AN, making the target population, and the application of the label, unclear. We propose revised criteria and a new name, restrictive eating disorder (RED), intended to reduce stigma and encompass a wide but better-defined range of presentations. The RED criteria focus on clinically significant restrictive behavior that disrupts normal living (i.e., impairment), and cognitive symptoms of overevaluation, disturbed experience, and lack of recognition of illness seriousness. We believe that RED may enable more appropriate clinical application, but also inspire coordinated research toward a more valid psychiatric nosology in the eating disorders field.

Latent anxiety and depression dimensions differ amongst patients with eating disorders: A Swedish nationwide investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Anxiety and depression symptoms are common in individuals with eating disorders. To study these co-occurrences, we need high-quality self-report questionnaires. The 19-item self-rated Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale for Affective Syndromes (CPRS-S-A) is not validated in patients with eating disorders. We tested its factor structure, invariance, and differences in its latent dimensions. METHOD: Patients were registered by 45 treatment units in the Swedish nationwide Stepwise quality assurance database for specialised eating disorder care (n = 9509). Patients self-reported their anxiety and depression symptoms on the CPRS-S-A. Analyses included exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in split samples, and testing of invariance and differences in subscales across eating disorder types. RESULTS: Results suggested a four-factor solution: Depression, Somatic and fear symptoms, Disinterest, and Worry. Multigroup CFA indicated an invariant factor structure. We detected the following differences: Patients with anorexia nervosa binge-eating/purging subtype scored the highest and patients with unspecified feeding and eating disorders the lowest on all subscales. Patients with anorexia nervosa or purging disorder show more somatic and fear symptoms than individuals with either bulimia nervosa or binge-eating disorder. CONCLUSION: Our four-factor solution of the CPRS-S-A is suitable for patients with eating disorders and may help to identify differences in anxiety and depression dimensions amongst patients with eating disorders.

Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for bulimic eating disorders in a clinical setting: Results from a randomized trial with one-year follow-up.

Background: Those who suffer from eating disorders often experience serious impairment in quality of life and the majority never receive treatment. Treatment availability may be increased by implementing methods that demand less resources and are more easy accessible such as internet-based treatments, but knowledge about their effects is still insufficient. The study evaluated effects of two types of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy and a structured day patient program, the latter being a standard treatment at an eating disorder clinic at the time for the study. Methods: 150 participants with bulimic eating disorders randomized to two types of internet based treatments (one pure online treatment and one based on a self-help guide in book-format) or an intensive 16-week day patient program. The number of participants that started treatment was 120 of which 98 in internet treatment and 22 in the day program. Outcome assessments were carried out at baseline, post treatment, and at one-year follow-up. Results: All treatments were associated with significantly improved eating disorder pathology, self-image, and clinical impairment. Although the day program generally showed larger effects, only one significant difference found was in diagnostic remission post treatment; 51 % of the participant was in remission in internet treatment and 88 % in the day program. At one-year follow-up, participants in the internet treatments had continued to improve, whereas in the day patient program the effect sustained. Internet treatment had a 36 % drop out rate, there were no dropouts found in the day program. Conclusions: All treatments were comparable in effect at follow-up, suggesting that internet treatment is a conceivable alternative to standard treatment. Internet treatment in a book-based format was also equally effective as a pure online format. Internet delivered cognitive behavioral treatment forms can make important contributions to achieve increased access to treatment for patients with bulimic eating disorders. Future research and clinical implications for internet delivered treatments in eating disorder services are discussed. Clinical trial registration: ISRCTN registry https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN44999017. The study was registered retrospectively.

Course and predictors of eating disorder symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and pandemic-related eating disorder concerns among adults with eating disorders during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic and public health mitigation measures have negatively impacted individuals with eating disorders (ED). We evaluated changes in and predictors of ED symptoms, pandemic-related ED concerns, and anxiety symptoms across the first 12 months of the COVID-19 pandemic among individuals with self-reported EDs in the United States (US), Sweden (SE), and the Netherlands (NL). METHOD: Participants in the US (N = 510), SE (N = 982), and NL (N = 510) completed an online survey assessing ED symptoms (binge eating, restriction, compensatory behaviors, and anxiety about being unable to exercise), general anxiety symptoms, and pandemic-related ED concerns about accessing food, lack of structure and social support, being in a triggering environment, and food and treatment costs. In the US and NL, respondents completed surveys beginning April 2020 and continuing monthly for a year. In SE, respondents completed baseline surveys in May 2020, a six-month follow-up around December 2020, and a 12-month follow-up in May 2021. RESULTS: Three patterns emerged: (1) a curvilinear course with the highest level of symptoms at baseline, declining through November 2020, and increasing through the rest of the year; (2) a linear declining course over time; and (3) a stable course with no changes. Worries about COVID-19 infection, lockdown, concerns about lack of structure and social support, and concerns about accessing food consistent with one's recovery meal plan predicted increases in ED symptoms. DISCUSSION: ED symptoms tracked with pandemic-related concerns in people with EDs. Conceptualizing predictors of symptoms may inform therapy and public health resources that reduce the impact of pandemics on mental health. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic had negative impacts on people with eating disorders, including amplification of mental health symptoms and stressors around peak periods of infection and COVID-19 restrictions. These findings inform medical providers, policy-makers, and community-based supports about the information and resource needs of this group to ensure efficient dissemination in future public health emergencies and during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Longer-term impact of COVID-19 among individuals with self-reported eating disorders in the United States, the Netherlands, and Sweden.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed eating disorder (ED) illness status, symptomatology, treatment access, anxiety, and depression in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic among individuals with a pre-existing ED in the United States (US), the Netherlands (NL), and Sweden (SE). METHODS: Participants completed online surveys in April-July 2020, at the early stage of the pandemic, and one year later. At one-year follow-up, we added questions addressing retrospective changes in ED symptoms, treatment, and anxiety/depression since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. We present descriptive statistics and assess change in ED symptomatology, treatment, and anxiety/depression among those with an active or lingering ED. RESULTS: Participants (US n = 132; NL n = 219; SE n = 702) were mostly young and female with a history of anorexia nervosa (>60% in all three countries). Across countries, respondents reported impact of COVID-19 on ED symptoms at both time points, with improvement in US and NL at one-year follow-up, and stable but less impact on ED symptoms in SE. Furthermore, at one-year follow-up, roughly half of those in treatment reported reduced treatment access and quality, and the majority of the sample reported increased anxiety and depressive mood since the start of the pandemic. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that the self-perceived impact of COVID-19 changed over time but remained concerning even one year after the start of the pandemic. Clinicians, community organizations, and policy makers are encouraged to address potentially changing treatment needs in the face of public health emergency events. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings suggest that the impact of COVID-19 on individuals with eating disorders decreased over time but remained concerning even one year after the start of the pandemic and that the impact differed across countries. Clinicians, community organizations, and policy makers are encouraged to incorporate this knowledge to address potentially changing treatment needs in the face of public health emergency events.

Association of family history of schizophrenia and clinical outcomes in individuals with eating disorders.

BACKGROUND: Familial co-aggregation studies of eating disorders (EDs) and schizophrenia reveal shared genetic and environment factors, yet their etiological and clinical relationship remains unclear. We evaluate the influence of schizophrenia family history on clinical outcomes of EDs. METHODS: We conducted a cohort evaluation of the association between family history of schizophrenia and ED clinical features, psychiatric comorbidities, and somatic and mental health burden in individuals born in Sweden 1977-2003 with anorexia nervosa (AN) or other EDs (OED: bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and ED not otherwise specified). RESULTS: Of 12 424 individuals with AN and 20 716 individuals with OED, 599 (4.8%) and 1118 (5.4%), respectively, had a family history of schizophrenia (in up to third-degree relatives). Among individuals with AN, schizophrenia in first-degree relatives was significantly associated with increased comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [HR(95% CI) 2.26 (1.27-3.99)], substance abuse disorder (SUD) [HR (95% CI) 1.93 (1.25-2.98)], and anxiety disorders [HR (95% CI) 1.47 (1.08-2.01)], but higher lowest illness-associated body mass index (BMI) [1.14 kg/m2, 95% CI (0.19-2.10)]. Schizophrenia in any relative (up to third-degree) in AN was significantly associated with higher somatic and mental health burden, but lower ED psychopathology scores [-0.29, 95% CI (-0.54 to -0.04)]. Schizophrenia in first-degree relatives in individuals with OED was significantly associated with increased comorbid ADHD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, SUD, anxiety disorders, somatic and mental health burden, and suicide attempts. CONCLUSIONS: We observed different patterns of ED-related outcomes, psychiatric comorbidity, and illness burden in individuals with EDs with and without family histories of schizophrenia and provide new insights into the diverse manifestations of EDs.

Mapping anorexia nervosa genes to clinical phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a psychiatric disorder with complex etiology, with a significant portion of disease risk imparted by genetics. Traditional genome-wide association studies (GWAS) produce principal evidence for the association of genetic variants with disease. Transcriptomic imputation (TI) allows for the translation of those variants into regulatory mechanisms, which can then be used to assess the functional outcome of genetically regulated gene expression (GReX) in a broader setting through the use of phenome-wide association studies (pheWASs) in large and diverse clinical biobank populations with electronic health record phenotypes. METHODS: Here, we applied TI using S-PrediXcan to translate the most recent PGC-ED AN GWAS findings into AN-GReX. For significant genes, we imputed AN-GReX in the Mount Sinai BioMe™ Biobank and performed pheWASs on over 2000 outcomes to test the clinical consequences of aberrant expression of these genes. We performed a secondary analysis to assess the impact of body mass index (BMI) and sex on AN-GReX clinical associations. RESULTS: Our S-PrediXcan analysis identified 53 genes associated with AN, including what is, to our knowledge, the first-genetic association of AN with the major histocompatibility complex. AN-GReX was associated with autoimmune, metabolic, and gastrointestinal diagnoses in our biobank cohort, as well as measures of cholesterol, medications, substance use, and pain. Additionally, our analyses showed moderation of AN-GReX associations with measures of cholesterol and substance use by BMI, and moderation of AN-GReX associations with celiac disease by sex. CONCLUSIONS: Our BMI-stratified results provide potential avenues of functional mechanism for AN-genes to investigate further.

Preliminary evaluation of the online course "I Care" targeting eating disorder knowledge and attitudes among sports coaches and fitness instructors.

BACKGROUND: Fitness instructors, coaches and trainers are often looked up to and seen as role-models within their sporting community. Since problematic exercise is a common symptom of eating disorders, they are also highly likely to meet individuals at risk for developing eating disorders within their profession. Thus, educating coaches about how to promote healthy ideals within their sports/training context and equipping them with knowledge to be able to detect and approach individuals at risk, is of great importance. METHOD: We studied the pre-to-post effects of the I Care online psychoeducational intervention in 150 coaches, trainers, and fitness instructors. Variables included the Compulsive Exercise Test, as well as knowledge of eating disorders, and confidence and awareness regarding approaching, talking to, and referring individuals whose observed behavior raised concerns. RESULTS: Results showed significant and large improvements in coaches' confidence and knowledge regarding warning signs and how to approach an at-risk person, and a decrease in their perceived ability to recognize eating disorders by sight, e.g., insight about EDs not being recognizable just by looking at a person. Also, significant positive change in attitudes about their own rule-driven exercise behavior and lack of enjoyment of exercise was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Although the lack of a control group compels caution, the study suggests that I Care may have positive effects in terms of a "declaration of intent" toward more positive role-modeling and interactions with clients.

Fitness instructors, coaches and trainers are often looked up to within their sporting community. They are also likely to meet individuals at risk for developing eating disorders, since excessive or compulsive exercise is a common symptom of these disorders. Coaches therefore need to know more about how to promote healthy ideals and how to detect and approach individuals at risk of developing an eating disorder.We studied if a brief online education called I Care could improve personal compulsive exercise tendencies, knowledge about eating disorders, and readiness to approach individuals seemingly at risk, in 150 coaches, trainers, and fitness instructors.We found that coaches felt more confident and knowledgeable about warning signs and how to approach a person at risk after completing I Care. They also showed increased insight about EDs not being recognizable just by looking at a person and their attitudes about their own exercise behavior changed in a positive way.Although the lack of a comparison group makes conclusions tentative, I Care may have positive effects in terms of a "declaration of intent" toward more positive role-modeling and interactions with clients.

Exploring the clinical and genetic associations of adult weight trajectories using electronic health records in a racially diverse biobank: a phenome-wide and polygenic risk study.

BACKGROUND: Weight trajectories might reflect individual health status. In this study, we aimed to examine the clinical and genetic associations of adult weight trajectories using electronic health records (EHRs) in the BioMe Biobank. METHODS: We constructed four weight trajectories based on a-priori definitions of weight changes (5% or 10%) using annual weight in EHRs (stable weight, weight gain, weight loss, and weight cycle); the final weight dataset included 21 487 participants with 162 783 annual weight measures. To confirm accurate assignment of weight trajectories, we manually reviewed weight trajectory plots for 100 random individuals. We then did a hypothesis-free phenome-wide association study (PheWAS) to identify diseases associated with each weight trajectory. Next, we estimated the single-nucleotide polymorphism-based heritability (hSNP2) of weight trajectories using GCTA-GREML, and we did a hypothesis-driven analysis of anorexia nervosa and depression polygenic risk scores (PRS) on these weight trajectories, given both diseases are associated with weight changes. We extended our analyses to the UK Biobank to replicate findings from a patient population to a generally healthy population. FINDINGS: We found high concordance between manually assigned weight trajectories and those assigned by the algorithm (accuracy ≥98%). Stable weight was consistently associated with lower disease risks among those passing Bonferroni-corrected p value in our PheWAS (p≤4·4 × 10-5). Additionally, we identified an association between depression and weight cycle (odds ratio [OR] 1·42, 95% CI 1·31-1·55, p≤7·7 × 10-16). The adult weight trajectories were heritable (using 5% weight change as the cutoff: hSNP2 of 2·1%, 95% CI 0·9-3·3, for stable weight; 4·1%, 1·4-6·8, for weight gain; 5·5%, 2·8-8·2, for weight loss; and 4·7%, 2·3-7·1%, for weight cycle). Anorexia nervosa PRS was positively associated with weight loss trajectory among individuals without eating disorder diagnoses (OR1SD 1·16, 95% CI 1·07-1·26, per 1 SD higher PRS, p=0·011), and the association was not attenuated by obesity PRS. No association was found between depression PRS and weight trajectories after permutation tests. All main findings were replicated in the UK Biobank (p<0·05). INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest the importance of considering weight from a longitudinal aspect for its association with health and highlight a crucial role of weight management during disease development and progression. FUNDING: Klarman Family Foundation, US National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).

Association of autism diagnosis and polygenic scores with eating disorder severity.

Among individuals with eating disorders (ED), those with co-occurring autism are often considered to have more severe presentations and poorer prognosis. However, previous findings have been contradictory and limited by small sample size and/or cross-sectional assessment of autistic traits. We examine the hypothesis that autism diagnosis and autism polygenic score (PGS) are associated with increased ED severity in a large ED cohort using a broad range of ED severity indicators. Our cohort included 3189 individuals (64 males) born 1977-2000 with current or previous anorexia nervosa who participated in the Anorexia Nervosa Genetics Initiative-Sweden (ANGI-SE) and for whom genotypes and linkage to national registers were available. We identified 134 (4.2%) individuals with registered autism diagnoses. Individuals with confirmed autism diagnosis had significantly more severe ED across three sets of severity indicators. Some of the largest effects were found for the proportion of individuals who attempted suicide and who received tube feeding (higher in autism), and for the time spent in inpatient care (longer in autism). Results for autism PGS were not statistically significant. Adapting ED treatment to the needs of individuals with co-occurring autism is an important research direction to improve treatment outcome in this group.

Evaluation of the Affect School as supplementary treatment of Swedish women with eating disorders: a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Despite solid research there remains a large group of patients with eating disorders who do not recover. Emotion dysregulation has been shown to be a feature in the different eating disorders. A manualized group intervention developed in Sweden, the Affect School, aims to enhance emotional awareness and the ability to perceive and express emotions. AIM: This study aimed to test the hypothesis that participation in the Affect School as a complement to ordinary eating disorder treatment would enhance awareness and regulation of emotions and reduce alexithymia and cognitive eating disorder symptoms in a sample of patients with eating disorders at a Swedish specialized outpatient clinic. METHOD: Forty patients with various eating disorders were randomized to either participation in the Affect School as a supplement to treatment as usual (TAU), or to a TAU control group. Participants were assessed with the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, the Deficits in Emotion Regulation Scale-36, and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 at start, end of intervention, and at the 6- and 12-month follow-ups. RESULTS: No significant differences were observed post-treatment but Affect School participants had improved significantly more than controls on eating disorder cognitions and behaviours and emotion dysregulation at the 6- and 12-month follow-ups and had significantly less alexithymia at the 6-month follow-up. CONCLUSION: Difficulties with emotion recognition and/or regulation can complicate fulfilment of personal needs and obstruct communication and relationships with others. The present study indicates that adding Affect School group sessions to regular treatment enhances emotional awareness and emotion regulation and decreases eating disorder symptoms and alexithymia. Patients with eating disorder diagnoses have described problems with emotional management, for example: lower emotional awareness and difficulties in using adaptive emotional regulatory strategies compared to people without eating disorders. It has been suggested that interventions aiming at enhancing emotional awareness and acceptance would be beneficial in treatment. In the present study we explored whether adding the Affect School to regular treatment would enhance awareness and regulation of emotions and decrease eating disorder symptoms. Forty women with an eating disorder were randomly allocated to either an additional participation in a group treatment for 8 weeks or usual treatment only. The treatment contained education on different affects such as joy, fear, interest, shame, anger, disgust, and worry. The education was followed by discussions on own experiences. Participants filled in self-assessment forms that measured eating disorder symptoms, emotional recognition, and emotion regulation before the start and at the end of the group treatment, and after 6 and 12 months respectively. The results when comparing the two groups suggested that the Affect School could be an effective additional treatment. Participants in the Affect School improved their scorings but the change took time and did not show until at the 6- and 12 months follow-ups.

Validity of eating disorder diagnoses in the Swedish national patient register.

The Swedish National Patient Register (NPR) includes population-level longitudinal data, and determining the validity of NPR diagnoses is critical to undergirding the research and policy recommendations they inform. Sweden also has the integrated "Riksät" and "Stepwise" National Quality Registers (QR), with data from specialized eating disorder (ED) treatment based on structured, valid assessment methods. To validate NPR ED diagnoses, we compared ICD-10-based anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and unspecified ED in NPR to DSM-IV-based AN, BN, and ED not otherwise specified category (EDNOS) in QR. Patients' first diagnoses registered in QR between February 2008 and August 2013 were compared with NPR diagnoses entered within ±1 month (N = 2074). QR registration includes the semi-structured DSM-IV-based Structured ED Interview. Each ED diagnosis was analyzed separately for degree of match using several indices: overall agreement, sensitivity, positive predictive value, specificity, negative predictive value, area under the curve, and Cohen's kappa. Results showed moderate to excellent agreement depending on estimate (e.g. positive predictive values AN: 0.747; BN:.836; EDNOS: 0.761), except for a somewhat low sensitivity for BN, and EDNOS agreement was overall the lowest. Case prevalence in the NPR and QR was highly similar for AN, and within five percentage points for BN and EDNOS. Generalizability is hampered by limited age range and diagnostic resolution as well as few males. Available data precluded study of presence/absence of ED, and complementary approaches are considered for future research. We conclude that NPR ED diagnoses have acceptable validity and are appropriate for use in research.

Emotion dysregulation and eating disorder outcome: Prediction, change and contribution of self-image.

OBJECTIVES: Eating disorders (EDs) are severe disorders with unsatisfactory outcome. Emotion dysregulation and self-image are suggested maintenance factors; this study examined emotion dysregulation as potential predictor and/or mechanism of change in relation to ED outcome, and associations between change in emotion dysregulation and self-image in relation to outcome. DESIGN: Registry data from initial and 1-year follow-up assessments for 307 patients with a wide range of EDs in specialized ED treatment were used. METHODS: Initial and change (∆) in emotion dysregulation were examined as predictors of 1-year outcome. Direct and indirect associations between ∆emotion dysregulation and ∆self-image as either independent variable or mediator in relation to ∆ED psychopathology as dependent were also examined. RESULTS: Higher initial emotion dysregulation was weakly associated with higher follow-up ED psychopathology, but not remission, while relative increase in emotion dysregulation was associated with both higher follow-up psychopathology and increased risk of still having a diagnosis. Change in emotion dysregulation primarily had an indirect effect (through change in self-image), while change in self-image had a direct effect, on change in ED psychopathology improvement (such that improvement in one was associated with improvement in the other). CONCLUSIONS: Results identify emotion dysregulation as a potential mechanism of change in relation to ED outcome. However, this association was mainly mediated by change in self-image. Results indicate that, in order to improve emotion regulation as a means to reduce ED psychopathology, improving self-image is essential.

Polygenic association with severity and long-term outcome in eating disorder cases.

About 20% of individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) remain chronically ill. Therefore, early identification of poor outcome could improve care. Genetic research has identified regions of the genome associated with AN. Patients with anorexia nervosa were identified via the Swedish eating disorder quality registers Stepwise and Riksät and invited to participate in the Anorexia Nervosa Genetics Initiative. First, we associated genetic information longitudinally with eating disorder severity indexed by scores on the Clinical Impairment Assessment (CIA) in 2843 patients with lifetime AN with or without diagnostic migration to other forms of eating disorders followed for up to 16 years (mean = 5.3 years). Second, we indexed the development of a severe and enduring eating disorder (SEED) by a high CIA score plus a follow-up time ≥5 years. We associated individual polygenic scores (PGSs) indexing polygenic liability for AN, schizophrenia, and body mass index (BMI) with severity and SEED. After multiple testing correction, only the BMI PGS when calculated with traditional clumping and p value thresholding was robustly associated with disorder severity (ßPGS = 1.30; 95% CI: 0.72, 1.88; p = 1.2 × 10-5) across all p value thresholds at which we generated the PGS. However, using the alternative PGS calculation method PRS-CS yielded inconsistent results for all PGS. The positive association stands in contrast to the negative genetic correlation between BMI and AN. Larger discovery GWASs to calculate PGS will increase power, and it is essential to increase sample sizes of the AN GWASs to generate clinically meaningful PGS as adjunct risk prediction variables. Nevertheless, this study provides the first evidence of potential clinical utility of PGSs for eating disorders.

Longitudinal experiences and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among people with past or current eating disorders in Sweden.

The study aimed to document the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the health and well-being of individuals with past and current eating disorders (ED) in Sweden. We re-contacted participants with a known lifetime history of ED from two previous Swedish studies. Participants completed an online survey about health and functioning at baseline early in the pandemic (Wave 1 ca May/June 2020; N= 982) and six months later (Wave 2 Dec/Jan 2020/21; N= 646). Three important patterns emerged: 1) higher current ED symptoms were associated with greater anxiety, worry, and pandemic-related ED symptom increase; 2) patterns were fairly stable across time, although a concerning percentage (23%) who were symptom-free at Wave 1 reported the re-emergence of symptoms at Wave 2; and 3) only a minority of participants (<50%) with a current ED were in treatment, and of those in treatment, many reported fewer treatment sessions and decreased quality of care. The COVID-19 pandemic appears to pose serious health challenges for individuals with an ED, whether currently symptomatic or in remission. We encourage health service providers and patient advocates to be alert to the needs of individuals with ED and to take active measures to ensure access to appropriate evidence-based care both during and following the pandemic.

Binge Eating and Addictive-Like Behaviours in Males and Females.

INTRODUCTION: Binge eating is a common behaviour that is strongly linked to both obesity and eating disorder. There is evidence that binge eating commonly co-occurs with other problematic and addictive-like behaviours; however, this has not been explored systematically. The present study aimed to examine the relationship between binge eating, body weight, disordered eating behaviours and associated addictive-like behaviours, with particular attention paid to gender differences. METHOD: A community sample (N = 500; 75% female, Mage = 32.5 years) reported disordered eating behaviours (i.e. binge eating, purging, restriction of eating, compulsive exercise), body mass index (BMI), food addiction, starvation addiction, exercise dependence, tobacco use and alcohol consumption. RESULTS: 42% of females and 21% of males reported binge eating during the past four weeks. Binge eating was significantly associated with all investigated behaviours in females, and with purging, compulsive exercise and overweight/obesity in males. Controlling for BMI, self-starvation predicted binge eating in males (OR = 1.07), while food addiction (OR = 1.73) and alcohol dependence (OR = 1.11) predicted binge eating in females. CONCLUSIONS: The multiple associations between binge eating and addictive-like behaviors supports broad screening and generalized prevention efforts. Prevention efforts should reflect gender differences.

Impulsivity and compulsivity as parallel mediators of emotion dysregulation in eating-related addictive-like behaviors, alcohol use, and compulsive exercise.

INTRODUCTION: Transdiagnostically relevant psychological traits associated with psychiatric disorders are increasingly being researched, notably in substance use and addictive behaviors. We investigated whether emotion dysregulation mediated by impulsivity and/or compulsivity could explain variance in binge eating, food addiction, self-starvation, and compulsive exercise, as well as alcohol use (addictive-like behaviors relevant to the obesity and eating disorder fields). METHOD: A general population sample of adults (N = 500, mean age = 32.5 years), females (n = 376) and males (n = 124), completed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-16, the Trait Rash Impulsivity Scale, the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised, the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire, the Self-Starvation Scale, the Exercise Dependence Scale, the Yale Food Addiction Scale, and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test online. Besides gender comparisons and intercorrelations between measures, we used predefined multiple mediation models with emotion dysregulation as independent variable, impulsivity and compulsivity as parallel mediators, to investigate whether these factors contributed explanatory power to each addictive-like behavior as outcome, also using age and body mass index as covariates. RESULTS: Females scored higher than males on emotion dysregulation and the eating-related addictive-like behaviors food addiction, self-starvation, and binge eating. Intercorrelations between measures showed that emotion dysregulation and compulsivity were associated with all outcome variables, impulsivity with all except compulsive exercise, and the eating-related behaviors intercorrelated strongly. Mediation models showed full or partial mediation of emotion dysregulation for all behaviors, especially via compulsivity, suggesting a behavior-specific pattern. Mediation models were not affected by age or gender. DISCUSSION: Addictive-like behaviors seemed to be maintained by trait levels of emotion dysregulation, albeit channeled via trait levels of compulsivity and/or impulsivity. The role of emotion dysregulation may help us to understand why addictive-like behaviors can be difficult to change in both clinical and nonclinical groups, and may be informative for treatment-planning in patients where these behaviors are present. Our findings support adopting a more dimensional approach to psychiatric classification by focusing psychological facets such as those studied.

Factor structure and clinical correlates of the original and 16-item version of the Difficulties In Emotion Regulation Scale in adolescent girls with eating disorders.

OBJECTIVES: The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) is increasingly used in adolescents. This study is the first to examine the factor structure, measurement, and structural invariance across age, reliability, and validity of the original 36-item and 16-item version of the DERS in adolescents with eating disorders. METHODS: Several models were examined using confirmatory factor analysis. Measurement and structural invariance were studied across age groups, and Omega, Omega Hierarchical, and criterion validity were examined. RESULTS: A bifactor model, with five subscales, showed acceptable fit in both DERS versions. Measurement and structural invariance held across age. The general factor had high reliability and accounted for a large proportion of variance in eating pathology and emotional symptoms. CONCLUSION: The Awareness subscale had a negative effect on fit in DERS, but both DERS versions were reliable and valid measures in both younger and older adolescents with eating disorders when using only five subscales.

Initial self-blame predicts eating disorder remission after 9 years.

BACKGROUND: Research into predictors of outcome in eating disorders (ED) has shown conflicting results, with few studies of long-term predictors and the possible importance of psychological variables that may act as risk- and maintenance factors. AIM: To identify baseline predictors of ED remission nine years after initial clinical assessment using self-report measures of ED psychopathology, psychiatric symptoms, and self-image in a sample of adult ED patients (N = 104) treated at specialist units in Stockholm, Sweden. Sixty patients participated in the follow-up, of whom 41 patients (68%) had achieved remission. RESULTS: Results suggested that the only significant predictor of diagnostic remission after nine years was initial levels of self-blame. CONCLUSION: In order to ensure long-term recovery in ED it may be important for clinicians to widen their therapeutic repertoire and utilise techniques that reduce self-blame and increase self-compassion. It is difficult to predict how an eating disorder will develop, and research has found varying factors that affect the outcome of the condition. Recovery rates vary from nearly nil to over 90%. This variation could be explained by different research factors, but are more likely due to varying definitions of 'recovery', with less stringent definitions yielding high recovery rates and more stringent definitions yielding lower rates. The present study investigated whether the severity of eating disorder symptoms and other psychiatric symptoms could predict recovery nine years from first admission to specialised eating disorder care. Sixty patients at three eating disorder treatment units participated, and their scores on self-report measures of symptoms were used as predictor variables. Forty-one participants had no eating disorder diagnosis at nine-year follow-up. Most participants with binge-eating disorder had recovered, while the poorest outcome was found for anorexia nervosa with slightly over half of patients recovered after nine years. The only predictor for the nine-year outcome was a higher initial rating of self-blame, measured with the Structural Analysis of the Social Behavior. It was concluded that it may be important for clinicians to detect and address self-blame early in the treatment of eating disorders in order to enhance the possibility of recovery. Treatment should focus on reducing self-blame and increasing self-acceptance.