Repeated short climatic change affects the epidermal differentiation program and leads to matrix remodeling in a human organotypic skin model.

Human skin is subject to frequent changes in ambient temperature and humidity and needs to cope with these environmental modifications. To decipher the molecular response of human skin to repeated climatic change, a versatile model of skin equivalent subject to "hot-wet" (40°C, 80% relative humidity [RH]) or "cold-dry" (10°C, 40% RH) climatic stress repeated daily was used. To obtain an exhaustive view of the molecular mechanisms elicited by climatic change, large-scale gene expression DNA microarray analysis was performed and modulated function was determined by bioinformatic annotation. This analysis revealed several functions, including epidermal differentiation and extracellular matrix, impacted by repeated variations in climatic conditions. Some of these molecular changes were confirmed by histological examination and protein expression. Both treatments (hot-wet and cold-dry) reduced the expression of genes encoding collagens, laminin, and proteoglycans, suggesting a profound remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Strong induction of the entire family of late cornified envelope genes after cold-dry exposure, confirmed at protein level, was also observed. These changes correlated with an increase in epidermal differentiation markers such as corneodesmosin and a thickening of the stratum corneum, indicating possible implementation of defense mechanisms against dehydration. This study for the first time reveals the complex pattern of molecular response allowing adaption of human skin to repeated change in its climatic environment.

MicroRNA-23b-3p regulates human keratinocyte differentiation through repression of TGIF1 and activation of the TGF-ß-SMAD2 signalling pathway.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding RNAs capable of repressing gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. miRNAs participate in the control of numerous cellular mechanisms, including skin homeostasis and epidermal differentiation. However, few miRNAs involved in these processes have been identified so far in human skin, and the gene networks they control remain largely unknown. Here, we focused on miR-23b-3p, a miRNA that is expressed during the late step of human keratinocyte differentiation. We report that miR-23b-3p silencing modulates epidermal differentiation in human skin reconstructs. The SMAD transcriptional corepressor TGIF1 was identified on bioinformatic analysis as a potential target of miR-23b-3p. Expression analysis and reporter gene assays confirmed direct regulation of TGIF1 expression by miR-23b-3p. Finally, we showed that miR-23-3p was able to activate TGF-ß signalling in human keratinocytes by increasing SMAD2 phosphorylation through TGIF1 repression. Taken together, these data identify miR-23b-3p as a new regulator of human epidermal differentiation in line with TGF-ß signalling.

Human Skin 3D Bioprinting Using Scaffold-Free Approach.

Organ in vitro synthesis is one of the last bottlenecks between tissue engineering and transplantation of synthetic organs. Bioprinting has proven its capacity to produce 3D objects composed of living cells but highly organized tissues such as full thickness skin (dermis + epidermis) are rarely attained. The focus of the present study is to demonstrate the capability of a newly developed ink formulation and the use of an open source printer, for the production of a really complete skin model. Proofs are given through immunostaining and electronic microscopy that the bioprinted skin presents all characteristics of human skin, both at the molecular and macromolecular level. Finally, the printability of large skin objects is demonstrated with the printing of an adult-size ear.

In vitro 3-D model based on extending time of culture for studying chronological epidermis aging.

Skin aging is a complex phenomenon in which several mechanisms operate simultaneously. Among them, intrinsic aging is a time-dependent process, which leads to gradual skin changes affecting its structure and function such as thinning down of both epidermal and dermal compartments and a flattening and fragility of the dermo-epidermal junction. Today, several approaches have been proposed for the generation of aged skin in vitro, including skin explants from aged donors and three-dimensional skin equivalent treated by aging-inducing chemical compounds or engineered with human cells isolated from aged donors. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a new in vitro model of aging based on skin equivalent demonstrating the same phenotypic changes that were observed in chronological aging. By using prolonged culture as a proxy for cellular aging, we extended to 120 days the culture time of a skin equivalent model based on collagen-glycosaminoglycan-chitosan porous polymer and engineered with human skin cells from photo-protected sites of young donors. Morphological, immunohistological and ultrastructural analysis at different time points of the culture allowed characterizing the phenotypic changes observed in our model in comparison to samples of non photo-exposed normal human skin from different ages. We firstly confirmed that long-term cultured skin equivalents are still morphologically consistent and functionally active even after 120 days of culture. However, similar to in vivo chronological skin aging a significant decrease of the epidermis thickness as well as the number of keratinocyte expressing proliferation marker Ki67 are observed in extended culture time skin equivalent. Epidermal differentiation markers loricrin, filaggrin, involucrin and transglutaminase, also strongly decreased. Ultrastructural analysis of basement membrane showed typical features of aged skin such as duplication of lamina densa and alterations of hemidesmosomes. Moreover, the expression of hyaluronan and its surface receptor CD44 drastically decreased as observed during chronological skin aging. Finally, we found that the level of p16INK4A expression significantly increased supporting cellular senescence process associated to our model. To conclude, the major morphological and ultrastructural epidermal modifications observed in both our extended culture skin equivalent model and skin biopsies from old donors validate the relevance of our model for studying chronological aging, understanding and elucidating age-related modifications of basic skin biological processes. In addition, our model provides a unique tool for identifying new targeted molecules intended at improving the appearance of aging skin.

A new organotypic model containing dermal-type macrophages.

Human skin equivalents (SEs) are popular three-dimensional (D) cell culture systems in fundamental and applied dermatology. They have been made to contain dendritic cells, but so far no study on the incorporation of potentially anti-inflammatory dermal macrophages has been performed. Here, we show that monocyte-derived dermal-type macrophages can be introduced into a rigid scaffold with dermal fibroblasts. They maintain their cell surface markers CD163, DC-SIGN/CD209 and HLA-DR, which discriminate them from monocytes and dendritic cells. They retain the ability to produce the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and to phagocytose latex beads. We thus demonstrate the feasibility of creating macrophage-fibroblast 3D cultures as a first step towards generating SEs with dermal macrophages.

Modulation of CD86 expression in skin dendritic cells does not always correlate with changes in DC motility, migration and allostimulatory functions.

CD86 expression is a well-known activation marker of dendritic cells (DC). In this study, we compared the level of CD86 expression in monocyte-derived skin DC with their motility, migratory abilities and allostimulatory capabilities. We show that motility and migration could be uncoupled from activation and that the immune response-modulating effects of certain compounds may correlate with down-regulation of CD86 expression rather than with effects on motility and migration.