Genetic diversity and population structure of indigenous guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) in Benin using simple sequence repeat markers.

This study aimed to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of 12 guinea fowl phenotypes from three climatic zones (Guinean, Sudano-Guinean and Sudanian) of Benin. A total of 96 adult guinea fowl, aged at least 6 months, were selected for blood sampling. Fragment analysis was carried out using 17 polymorphic microsatellite markers. The informative marker combinations revealed a total of 83 alleles across all loci, with an average of 5 alleles per locus and a mean polymorphic information content (PIC) of 0.793. This study showed an observed heterozygosity of 0.492. The inbreeding coefficient values ranged from -0.086 in white phenotype to 0.226 in cinnamon, showing a deficit of heterozygotes, suggesting a moderate inbreeding level. A relatively low population differentiation was observed, with a mean fixation index (Fst) value of 0.033. The short genetic distances between phenotypes, unlike the strong genetic identities, revealed high genetic proximity between the 12 phenotypes of indigenous guinea fowl in Benin. These data indicate the existence of a single indigenous guinea fowl population with high intra-population genetic diversity with respect to climatic zones or phenotypes. This study will help in the selection of parental breeding stock for genetic improvement programs, as well as in the conservation for biodiversity maintenance and sustainable use of the indigenous guinea fowl in the study zones in Benin.

Socioeconomic correlates, typology and characterization of indigenous guinea fowl (Numida meleagris, Linnaeus) farming in Benin, West Africa.

The role of agriculture in Benin, Western Africa cannot be overemphasized, where livestock production is a major occupation among the rural population as it serves as a means of livelihood and sustenance. This study was carried out to examine the socio-economic correlates of guinea fowl production status in Benin and to characterize their management practices. 165 farmers across 10 regions in Benin were selected using the non-probabilistic snowball sampling method. Information on farmers' socio-economics, management practices and constraints to optimum production were elicited with the aid of a structured questionnaire and subjected to analysis. The results showed that across all the 10 regions surveyed, guinea fowl farming was the dominant occupation, particularly among men (81.0%) irrespective of sociolinguistic groups, religion and level of education. About one-third (34.5%) of the farmers had no formal education. In terms of characterization, four clusters of guinea fowl farmers were identified based on geographical location, educational level, management technique and farming experience. The constraints to guinea fowl production were slow growth and high mortalities as a result of diseases (40.7%) and predators (29.1%). Improvement in feeding (30%) and veterinary care (33.9%) were part of suggestions made by farmers to increase the productivity of the birds. The study concluded that adequate technical support and scientific research are inevitable in this sector as this will considerably improve the rural populations living conditions through enhanced income and therefore constitute a real lever for rural development.

HIV incidence and risk contributing factors among men who have sex with men in Benin: A prospective cohort study.

Men who have sex with Men (MSM) are a key population in the transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. In Benin, there is a lack of strategic information to offer appropriate interventions for these populations who live hidden due to their stigmatization and discrimination. The objective is to identify contributing factors that affect HIV incidence in the MSM population. Study of a prospective cohort of 358 HIV-negative MSM, aged 18 years and over, reporting having had at least one oral or anal relationship with another man during the last 12 months, prior to recruitment. The monitoring lasted 30 months with a follow-up visit every six months. Univariate analyses and a Cox proportional hazards multivariate regression were used to examine the association between bio-behavioral, socio-demographic and knowledge-related characteristics with HIV incidence. The retention rate for the follow-up of the 358 participants was 94.5%. On the 813.5 person-years of follow-up, 48 seroconversions with an HIV incidence of 5.91 per 100 person-years were observed (95% CI: 4.46-7.85). Factors associated with the high risk of HIV were age (HR = 0.4; 95% CI: 0.2-0.8), living in couple (HR = 0.5 95% CI: 0.2-0.96) and the lack of condom systematic use with a male partner during high-risk sex (HR = 3.9; 95% CI: 1.4-11.1). HIV incidence is high within MSM population and particularly among young people. Targeted, suitable and cost-effective interventions for the delivery of the combination prevention package in an environment free of stigma and discrimination are necessary and vital for reaching the 90x90x90 target.

Comparison of the prevalence rates of HIV infection between men who have sex with men (MSM) and men in the general population in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: According to the 2015 report of the Joint United Nations Program on Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), the prevalence rates of HIV infection among men who have sex with men (MSM) varied from 6 to 37% depending on the country, far exceeding the national prevalence rates. The present study on HIV infection among men who have sex with men in sub-Saharan Africa was conducted to describe the different sampling methods used to identify this target population and compare the prevalence rates of HIV infection among MSM to that of men in the general population. METHODS: The selection of studies to be included was carried out in the principal electronic databases. The 2009 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) directives were used throughout the entire process. Bias evaluation was performed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. For each country, HIV prevalence values in both groups were calculated. A prevalence ratio was also calculated to compare the prevalence rates of the two groups. RESULTS: Seventeen articles were selected. Most of the studies (82.35%) used the Respondent-Driven Sampling method. The average prevalence rate was 17.81% (range: 3.7-33.46) for MSM and 6.15% (range: 0.5-19.7) for men in the general population. Overall, the human HIV prevalence rate was 4.94 times higher among MSM than among men in the general population (95%CI: 2.91-8.37). The western and central regions of Africa, as well as low-prevalence countries (prevalence < 1%), had very high prevalence ratios: 14.47 (95% CI: 9.90-21.13) and 28.49 (95% CI: 11.47-72.71), respectively. CONCLUSION: MSM are at higher risk of HIV infection than men in the general population. The prevalence ratios are particularly elevated in West and Central Africa as well as in low-prevalence countries. Close monitoring of the situation, research and preventive measures are essential to control the epidemic amongst MSM.

Decrease in Mycobacterium ulcerans disease (Buruli ulcer) in the Lalo District of Bénin (West Africa).

BACKGROUND: Buruli ulcer (BU) is a chronic, necrotizing infectious skin disease caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans. In recent years, there has been a decrease in the number of new cases detected. This study aimed to show the evolution of its distribution in the Lalo District in Bénin from 2006 to 2017. METHODS: The database of the BU Detection and Treatment Center of Lalo allowed us to identify 1017 new cases in the Lalo District from 2006 to 2017. The annual prevalence was calculated with subdistricts and villages. The trends of the demographic variables and those related to the clinical and treatment features were analysed using Microsoft Excel® 2007 and Epi Info® 7. Arc View version® 3.4 was used for mapping. RESULTS: From 2006 to 2017, the case prevalence of BU in the Lalo District decreased by 95%. The spatial distribution of BU cases confirmed the foci of the distribution, as described in the literature. The most endemic subdistricts were Ahomadégbé, Adoukandji, Gnizounmè and Tchito, with a cumulative prevalence of 315, 225, 215 and 213 cases per 10,000 inhabitants, respectively. The least endemic subdistricts were Zalli, Banigbé, Lalo-Centre and Lokogba, with 16, 16, 10, and 5 cases per 10,000 inhabitants, respectively. A significant decrease in the number of patients with ulcerative lesions (p = 0.002), as well as those with category 3 lesions (p < 0.001) and those treated surgically (p < 0.001), was observed. The patients confirmed by PCR increased (from 40.42% in 2006 to 84.62% in 2017), and joint limitation decreased (from 13.41% in 2006 to 0.0% in 2017). CONCLUSION: This study confirmed the general decrease in BU prevalence rates in Lalo District at the subdistrict and village levels, as also observed at the country level. This decrease is a result of the success of the BU control strategies implemented in Bénin, especially in the Lalo District.

Assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene practices and associated factors in a Buruli ulcer endemic district in Benin (West Africa).

BACKGROUND: Control of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) requires multiple strategic approaches including water, sanitation and hygiene services (WASH). Buruli ulcer (BU), one of the 17 NTDs, remains a public health issue in Benin particularly in the district of Lalo. The availability of water as well as good hygiene are important for the management of Buruli ulcer particularly in the area of wound care one of the main component of the treatment of BU lesions. Given the growing importance of WASH in controlling NTDs and in order to assess the baseline for future cross-cutting interventions, we report here on the first study evaluating the level of WASH and associated factors in Lalo, one of the most BU-endemic districts in Benin. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was carried to assess WASH practices and associated factors in the district of Lalo. Data were collected from 600 heads of household using structured pretested questionnaire and observations triangulated with qualitative information obtained from in-depth interviews of patients, care-givers and community members. Univariate and multivariate analysis were carried to determine the relationships between the potential associated factors and the sanitation as well as hygiene status. RESULTS: BU is an important conditions in the district of Lalo with 917 new cases detected from 2006 to 2012. More than 49 % of the household surveyed used unimproved water sources for their daily needs. Only 8.7 % of the investigated household had improved sanitation facilities at home and 9.7 % had improved hygiene behavior. The type of housing as an indicator of the socioeconomic status, the permanent availability of soap and improved hygiene practices were identified as the main factors positively associated with improved sanitation status. CONCLUSIONS: In the district of Lalo in Benin, one of the most endemic for BU, the WASH indicators are very low. This study provides baseline informations for future cross-cutting interventions in this district.

Treatment of hypercholesterolemia: screening of Solanum macrocarpon Linn (Solanaceae) as a medicinal plant in Benin.

OBJECTIVE: Hypercholesterolemia is the greatest risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The present study is conducted to evaluate the lipid lowering activity of leaves and fruits of Solanum macrocarpon, a vegetable, on Wistar rats experimentally rendered hypercholesterolemic by Triton X-100. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The leaves and fruits were administered (p.o.) for 7 days to rats at doses of 400 and 800 mg/kg of body weight. Atorvastatin was used as reference treatment drug. The data were analyzed by the Brown-Forsythe ANOVA, Dunnett's T3 multiple comparison test, and Dunnett's t test. All tests were done at the 5% significance level. RESULTS: Administration of S. macrocarpon (fruits as well as leaves) resulted in a statistically significant decrease in total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, VLDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides in the treated groups compared with the untreated hypercholesterolemic group, regardless of the administrated doses. A significant increase in HDL-cholesterol was observed in the treated groups. Hepatic disorders due to the Triton have been corrected by S. macrocarpon. CONCLUSIONS: This vegetable effectively suppresses experimental hypercholesterolemia in Wistar rats, suggesting a protective role in cardiovascular diseases. Its use by individuals at risk should be promoted.

[Presence of lead in leaves of Solanum macrocarpon cultivated in Cotonou (Benin): role of poorly composted poultry manure]. / Présence du plomb dans les feuilles de Solanum macrocarpon Linn cultivé à Cotonou (Bénin) : rôle des fientes de poulets mal compostées.

This work assesses the impact of the use of chicken manure and irrigation water on the toxicological quality of Solanum macrocarpon, a highly appreciated vegetable. A control site in Glo-Djigbé, gardeners' sites at Houéyiho, Fidjrossè, and Agongbomey were included in the study. Lead has been sought in the environment of S. macrocarpon culture by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). Regarding the content of lead in the droppings, the averages in mg/kg varied between 0.696 and 3.618. The soil of Houéyiho (46.320±0.651mg/kg) was more contaminated with lead than that of the other sites. The irrigation water used in the study sites was slightly contaminated with lead with values ranging between 0.038 and 0.017mg/L. Leaves taken from the control site, Glo-Djigbé were contaminated with lead with a value of 0.936±0.070mg/kg compared to those of Agongbomey, Houéyiho and Fidjrossè. The leaves of S. macrocarpon were contaminated with lead at significantly values higher than those imposed by the FAO (0.1mg/kg). Consumption without precautions could expose people to diseases related to the accumulation of this metal.

Health-risk market garden production linked to heavy metals in irrigation water in Benin.

Heavy metals in the Benin market garden products: is irrigation water the first factor in question, and what is the level of health risk linked to the consumption of these vegetables? Such are the essential problems that this survey attempts to solve. Comparison of the level of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) pollution shows that all the vegetables taken from three market sites are differently contaminated, as well as their irrigation water and the soil. But establishing that water is the first factor responsible for the presence of heavy metals in market garden products is not so obvious. Otherwise, the health risk assessment revealed that the total daily exposure dose (DED) of Cd, namely 8.05µg/kg/day, is high compared to the daily dose defined by the WHO, which is 1µg/kg/day. Also, the ensuing quotient of danger (QD) is 8.05; such a value poses public health risks for the consumer.

Contribution of poses screen preimpregnated (PSP) installed at openings and eaves of dwellings in the reduction of malaria transmission in the commune of Aguégués in Bénin.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the contribution of poses screen pre-impregnated (PSP) installed at openings and eaves of dwellings in the reduction of malaria transmission in the commune of Aguégués in Bénin. METHODS: The PSP were manufactured from preimpregnated Olyset Net. They were installed at windows, eaves and doors of 70 dwellings. 320 children aged 6-59 months were treated and 311 children were recruited in the control zone. Variables measured are: plasmodic index (IP), gametocyte index, parasite density (PD), fever, hemoglobin, anemia. RESULTS: The global IP was 16.62% with PSP and 72.20% without PSP. Gametocyte index did not differ significantly between the treated zone (27.8) and the control zone (29.1). The total geometric mean of DP was 309 in the treated zone and 600 in the control zone. Hemoglobin level is 8.7 in the control zone and 9.5 in the treated zone. We noted a predominance of anemia in the control zone compared to the treated zone. CONCLUSIONS: The PSP have contributed to a significant reduction in morbidity in the commune of Aguégués.

Cotton pest management practices and the selection of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae population in northern Benin.

BACKGROUND: Pyrethroid insecticides, carbamate and organophosphate are the classes of insecticides commonly used in agriculture for crop protection in Benin. Pyrethroids remain the only class of insecticides recommended by the WHO for impregnation of bed nets. Unfortunately, the high level of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l., threatens to undermine the success of pyrethroid treated nets. This study focuses on the investigation of agricultural practices in cotton growing areas, and their direct impact on larval populations of An. gambiae in surrounding breeding sites. METHODS: The protocol was based on the collection of agro-sociological data where farmers were subjected to semi-structured questionnaires based on the strategies used for crop protection. This was complemented by bioassay tests to assess the susceptibility of malaria vectors to various insecticides. Molecular analysis was performed to characterize the resistance genes and the molecular forms of An. gambiae. Insecticide residues in soil samples from breeding sites were investigated to determine major factors that can inhibit the normal growth of mosquito larvae by exposing susceptible and resistant laboratory strains. RESULTS: There is a common use by local farmers of mineral fertilizer NPK at 200 kg/ha and urea at 50 kg/hectare following insecticide treatments in both the Calendar Control Program (CCP) and the Targeted Intermittent Control Program (TICP). By contrast, no chemicals are involved in Biological Program (BP) where farmers use organic and natural fertilizers which include animal excreta.Susceptibility test results confirmed a high resistance to DDT. Mean mortality of An. gambiae collected from the farms practicing CCP, TICP and BP methods were 33%, 42% and 65% respectively. An. gambiae populations from areas using the CCP and TICP programs showed resistance to permethrin with mortality of 50% and 58% respectively. By contrast, bioassay test results of An. gambiae from BP areas gave a high level of susceptibility to permethrin with an average mortality of 94%.Molecular analysis identified An. gambiae s.s, and An. arabiensis with a high predominance of An. gambiae s.s (90%). The two molecular forms, M and S, were also determined with a high frequency of the S form (96%).The Kdr gene seemed the main target- site resistance mechanism detected in CCP, TICP, and BP areas at the rates ranging from 32 to 78%. The frequency of ace-1R gene was very low (< 0.1).The presence of inhibiting factors in soil samples under insecticide treatments were found and affected negatively in delaying the development of An. gambiae larval populations. CONCLUSIONS: This research shows that Kdr has spread widely in An. gambiae, mainly in CCP and TICP areas where pyrethroids are extensively used. To reduce the negative impact of pesticides use in cotton crop protection, the application of BP-like programs, which do not appear to select for vector resistance would be useful. These results could serve as scientific evidence of the spread of resistance due to a massive agricultural use of insecticides and contribute to the management of pesticides usage on cotton crops hence reducing the selection pressure of insecticides on An. gambiae populations.

The impact of the expansion of urban vegetable farming on malaria transmission in major cities of Benin.

BACKGROUND: Urban agricultural practices are expanding in several cities of the Republic of Benin. This study aims to assess the impact of such practices on transmission of the malaria parasite in major cities of Benin. METHOD: A cross sectional entomological study was carried out from January to December 2009 in two vegetable farming sites in southern Benin (Houeyiho and Acron) and one in the northern area (Azèrèkè). The study was based on sampling of mosquitoes by Human Landing Catches (HLC) in households close to the vegetable farms and in others located far from the farms. RESULTS: During the year of study, 71,678 female mosquitoes were caught by HLC of which 25% (17,920/71,678) were Anopheles species. In the areas surveyed, the main malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum was transmitted in the south by Anopheles gambiae s.s. Transmission was high during the two rainy seasons (April to July and October to November) but declined in the two dry seasons (December to March and August to September). In the north, transmission occurred from June to October during the rainy season and was vehicled by two members of the An. gambiae complex: Anopheles gambiae s.s. (98%) and Anopheles arabiensis (2%).At Houeyiho, Acron and Azèrèkè, the Entomological Inoculation Rates (EIRs) and the Human Biting Rates (HBRs) were significantly higher during the dry season in Households Close to Vegetable Farms (HCVF) than in those located far from the vegetable areas (HFVF) (p < 0.05.). However, there were no significant differences in HBRs or EIRs between HCFV and HFVF during the rainy seasons at these sites (p > 0.05).The knock-down resistance (kdr) mutation was the main resistance mechanism detected at high frequency (0.86 to 0.91) in An. gambiae s.l. at all sites. The ace-1R mutation was also found but at a very low frequency (< 0.1). CONCLUSION: These findings showed that communities living close to vegetable farms are permanently exposed to malaria throughout the year, whereas the risk in those living far from such agricultural practices is limited and only critical during the rainy seasons. Measures must be taken by African governments to create awareness among farmers and ultimately decentralize farming activities from urban to rural areas where human-vector contact is limited.

Organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticide residues in the Ouémé River catchment in the Republic of Bénin.

The Ouémé River is one of the most important rivers in the Republic of Bénin. It is 510 km long and its catchment drains 75% of the country. In this study, organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticide residues were measured in more than 35 sediment samples collected on nine locations along the Ouémé River from upstream to downstream. Except for one location, Tanéka-Koko, all areas were contaminated by more than 20 pesticides. Organochlorine pesticides identified in sediment samples included pp'-DDE, op'-DDD, pp'-DDD, op'-DDT, pp'-DDT, alpha-endosulfan, beta-endosulfan, endosulfan sulphate, alpha-HCH, beta-HCH, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, telodrin, isodrin, cis- and trans-heptachlorepoxide, hexachlorbutadiene, hexachlorobenzene and octachlorostyrene. The organophosphorous pesticide chlorpyrifos, used in a new formulation to protect cotton, was also identified. In some areas, the concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in the sediment of the Ouémé River exceeded environmental quality standards and are reason for concern.

Contamination of fish by organochlorine pesticide residues in the Ouémé River catchment in the Republic of Bénin.

In the Republic of Bénin, aquatic ecosystems are subject to poisoning risks due to the inappropriate use of pesticides, such as washing of empty bottles in rivers and using pesticides to catch fish. In some areas, cotton fields are located near riverbanks, increasing the probability of pesticide emission to the river. To assess contamination levels in the Ouémé River catchment area, different fish species were collected from different geographical areas along the river. DDT, its metabolites and isomers were the most frequently identified pesticides in fish flesh, alpha-endosulfan, beta-endosulfan, dieldrin, telodrin, lindane and octachlorostyrene were also detected. Concentrations of pesticide residues in fish ranged from 0 to 1364 ng/g lipid. A preliminary risk assessment indicated that the daily intake of chlorinated pesticides by people consuming fish from the Ouémé River still is rather low and does not present an immediate risk.