Body composition in male lifelong trained strength, sprint and endurance athletes and healthy age-matched controls.

Introduction: Aging involves many physiological processes that lead to decreases in muscle mass and increases in fat mass. While regular exercise can counteract such negative body composition outcomes, masters athletes maintain high levels of exercise throughout their lives. This provides a unique model to assess the impact of inherent aging. The present study compared lean mass and fat mass in young and masters athletes from different sports to age-matched non-athletic individuals. Methods: Participants included young (20-39 years, n = 109) and older (70-89 years, n = 147) competitive male athletes, and 147 healthy age-matched controls (young = 53, older = 94 males). Athletes were separated into strength (e.g., weightlifters, powerlifters), sprint (e.g., sprint runners, jumpers) and endurance (e.g., long-distance runners, cross-country skiers) athletic disciplines. Body composition was assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Upper and lower limb lean mass was combined for appendicular lean mass as well as appendicular lean mass index (ALMI; kg/m2). Individuals' scores were assessed against established cut-offs for low muscle mass, obesity, and sarcopenic obesity to determine prevalence in each group. Results: ALMI was greater in young strength (0.81-2.36 kg/m2, ∼15% and 1.24-2.74 kg/m2, ∼19%) and sprint (95% CI = 0.51-1.61 kg/m2, ∼11% and 0.96-1.97 kg/m2, ∼15%) athletes than in endurance and controls, respectively (all P < 0.001). In masters athletes, only strength athletes had greater ALMI than endurance athletes, but both older strength and sprint athletes had greater ALMI than older controls (0.42-1.27 kg/m2, ∼9% and 0.73-1.67 kg/m2, ∼13%, respectively, both P < 0.001). Fat mass was significantly lower in sprint and endurance athletes compared to strength athletes and controls in both age-groups. Sarcopenic obesity was identified in one young (2%) and eighteen (19%) older controls, while only two older endurance athletes (3%) and one older strength athlete (2%) were identified. Discussion: Lifelong competitive sport participation leads to lower prevalence of sarcopenic obesity than a recreationally active lifestyle. This is achieved in strength athletes by emphasizing muscle mass, while sprint and endurance athletes demonstrate low fat mass levels. However, all older athlete groups showed higher fat mass than the young groups, suggesting that exercise alone may not be sufficient to manage fat mass.

Context matters: athletes' perception of dopers' values, actions and vulnerabilities.

Background: Although athletes seem to hold uniform views towards non-dopers, their perception of dopers is more nuanced, reflecting positive and negative attributes. Research also indicates that rarely a single factor can explain doping, but a host of reasons that intertwine. A holistic understanding of how values play a role in decisions in anti-doping and the elements that influence athletes' doping vulnerability is timely and warranted. Methods: We recruited elite athletes from 13 countries representing 27 sports at a national or international level (N = 60) to participate as part of a larger research project. Data were collected via focus group interviews focusing on values, value priorities and perceptions about the role of values in doping as a phenomenon and in dopers' actions. Data were analysed using iterative thematic analysis. Results: Three themes were identified: (1) athletes' personal stance on doping, (2) dopers in the eyes of the anti-doping-compliant athletes, and (3) doping vulnerability is a balance. Athletes in this study strongly opposed doping but showed empathy and understanding toward athletes who doped under certain circumstances. Furthermore, athletes believed that "clean" and "doping" athletes are not always distinguished by the values they hold, leading to the realisation that all athletes can be vulnerable to doping at some point. This vulnerability is a balance between risks and protective factors in a complex interaction between environmental, personal, and situational influences. Each element (e.g., values, environment) can be a motivator or a barrier. Consequently, doping vulnerability is highly idiosyncratic and dynamic. Conclusion: If doping is not due to a lack of moral values but the consequences of combined risk factors that override the guiding function of values, then doping can happen to anyone, "good" athletes included. Developers and facilitators of anti-doping education programmes are advised to embrace this important aspect. The results also contribute to developing the doping vulnerability concept as a balance between risks and protective factors and draw attention to the clean athlete vulnerability, which is rooted in the combination of strategic performance enhancement via non-prohibited means, their exposure to anti-doping requirements and the constant high level of suspicion that surrounds them.

Knowledge of Nutrition and Physical Activity Guidelines is Not Associated with Physical Function in Dutch Older Adults Attending a Healthy Ageing Public Engagement Event.

Purpose: Evidence-based guidelines on nutrition and physical activity are used to increase knowledge in order to promote a healthy lifestyle. However, actual knowledge of guidelines is limited and whether it is associated with health outcomes is unclear. Participants and Methods: This inception cohort study aimed to investigate the association of knowledge of nutrition and physical activity guidelines with objective measures of physical function and physical activity in community-dwelling older adults attending a public engagement event in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Knowledge of nutrition and physical activity according to Dutch guidelines was assessed using customized questionnaires. Gait speed and handgrip strength were proxies of physical function and the Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to assess physical activity in minutes/week. Linear regression analysis, stratified by gender and adjusted for age, was used to study the association between continuous and categorical knowledge scores with outcomes. Results: In 106 older adults (mean age=70.1 SD=6.6, years) who were highly educated, well-functioning, and generally healthy, there were distinct knowledge gaps in nutrition and physical activity which did not correlate with one another (R2=0.013, p=0.245). Knowledge of nutrition or physical activity guidelines was not associated with physical function or physical activity. However, before age-adjustment nutrition knowledge was positively associated with HGS in males (B= 0.64 (95% CI: 0.05, 1.22)) and having knowledge above the median was associated with faster gait speed in females (B=0.10 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.19)). Conclusion: Our findings may represent a ceiling effect of the impact knowledge has on physical function and activity in the this high performing and educated population and that there may be other determinants of behavior leading to health status such as attitude and perception to consider in future studies.

Motives for competitive sports participation in masters track and field athletes: Impact of sociodemographic factors and competitive background.

OBJECTIVES: Masters athletes due to their lifelong engagement in sport represent a unique group to study motivation for regular physical activity, but there is less scientific data on the sport motives in masters athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association of age, sex, education, nationality, competitive background and training amount with sport motives of masters track and field athletes. METHODS: 811 (254 women) athletes aged 35-89 years participated in European Veterans Athletics Championships in the year of 2000. Sport motives were assessed with a questionnaire and categorized into1) well-being, 2) competitive and performance 3) health and fitness motives. RESULTS: Men considered health and fitness motives more important than women (p = 0.022). Over 65-year-old athletes considered health and fitness motives more important than the youngest, 35-49-year age group (p<0.001). Education was not associated with sport motives, while motives varied significantly among different nationalities. Athletes from Nordic Countries considered well-being motives more important than Southern Europeans (p<0.001) or Western Europeans (p<0.05). Athletes from Nordic Countries (p = 0.003), Eastern Europe (p<0.001) and Central Europe (p<0.001) found health and fitness motives more meaningful than athletes from the British Isles. Furthermore, athletes with competitive background before the age of 35 and training amount more than 7.5 h a week found competitive and performance motives more important than athletes without a competitive history (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that age, sex, nationality and former athleticism are associated with sports motives among international level masters track and field athletes. It seems that while for masters athletes with competitive background performance motives dominate, for older adults, particularly for males, health and fitness motives are more important. In addition, when designing the exercise interventions for older adults, different sport motives across countries should be considered.

Behaviours and Beliefs Related to Whistleblowing Against Doping in Sport: A Cross-National Study.

Background: Whistleblowing has been recognized as an important deterrent of doping in elite competitive sport. The present study examined athletes' knowledge of external whistleblowing channels and on how and where to report doping misconduct, perceived trust in different whistleblowing reporting channels, whistleblowing behaviour and athletes' reasons for reporting (or not) doping misconduct. Methods: Athletes from Greece (n = 480), the Russian Federation (n = 512) and the United Kingdom (n = 171) completed a structured questionnaire on demographics, knowledge of different whistleblowing channels, perceived trust in internal and external whistleblowing channels, past whistleblowing behaviour and reasons for reporting (or not) doping misconduct. Results: The British athletes reported greater awareness of whistleblowing reporting channels (e.g., WADA's Speak Up and IOC's reporting platform) than did athletes from Greece (all p < 0.001) and Russia (p = 0.07, and p = 0.012) respectively. However, British athletes reported the lowest scores on knowledge of how and where to report doping misconduct, as compared to athletes from Greece and Russia. The majority of respondents reported greater trust to their coach or a club manager than to other whistleblowing channels, however, responses regarding other channels varied by country. Among athletes who detected doping misconduct 62% of athletes did not report it, while 38% reported it. Reasons for and against reporting doping misconduct reflected in eight themes that were identified using thematic analysis. Conclusion: Athletes showed low awareness of external whistleblowing channels and they predominantly trusted internal whistleblowing channels. Sportspersonship, confidence in resources and personal benefits were among the reasons that facilitate reporting doping misconduct. The present findings indicate that cultural context may play a role in the ways athletes perceive whistleblowing, and this should be taken into account by future interventions to promote the reporting of doping misconduct.

Staying Active under Restrictions: Changes in Type of Physical Exercise during the Initial COVID-19 Lockdown.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the associated governmental restrictions suddenly changed everyday life and potentially affected exercise behavior. The aim of this study was to explore whether individuals changed their preference for certain types of physical exercise during the pandemic and to identify risk factors for inactivity. An international online survey with 13,881 adult participants from 18 countries/regions was conducted during the initial COVID-19 related lockdown (between April and May 2020). Data on types of exercise performed during and before the initial COVID-19 lockdown were collected, translated, and categorized (free-text input). Sankey charts were used to investigate these changes, and a mixed-effects logistic regression model was used to analyze risks for inactivity. Many participants managed to continue exercising but switched from playing games (e.g., football, tennis) to running, for example. In our sample, the most popular exercise types during the initial COVID-19 lockdown included endurance, muscular strength, and multimodal exercise. Regarding risk factors, higher education, living in rural areas, and physical activity before the COVID-19 lockdown reduced the risk for inactivity during the lockdown. In this relatively active multinational sample of adults, most participants were able to continue their preferred type of exercise despite restrictions, or changed to endurance type activities. Very few became physically inactive. It seems people can adapt quickly and that the constraints imposed by social distancing may even turn into an opportunity to start exercising for some. These findings may be helpful to identify individuals at risk and optimize interventions following a major context change that can disrupt the exercise routine.

Associations of physical performance and physical activity with mental well-being in middle-aged women.

BACKGROUND: To investigate whether physical performance is independently of physical activity (PA) associated with positive and negative dimensions of mental well-being in middle-aged women. METHODS: Data were drawn from the Estrogenic Regulation of Muscle Apoptosis (ERMA) study in which women 47 to 55 years were randomly selected from the Finnish National Registry. They (n = 909) participated in measurements of physical performance (handgrip force, knee extension force, vertical jumping height, maximal walking speed, and six-minute walking distance). Both mental well-being (the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form and the Satisfaction with Life Scale) and PA were self-reported. Associations between variables were analysed using multivariate linear regression modelling adjusted for body height, fat mass %, menopausal status and symptoms, marital status, parity, employment status, self-reported mental disorders, and use of psycholeptics and psychoanaleptics. PA was then entered into a separate model to explore its role in the associations. RESULTS: In the adjusted models, significant positive associations of six-minute walking distance with positive affectivity (B = 0.12, p = 0.002) and life satisfaction (B = 0.15, p = 0.033) were observed. No significant associations were observed between physical performance and depressive symptoms or negative affectivity. PA was positively associated with positive affectivity and life satisfaction and negatively with depressive symptoms across all the physical performance variables. CONCLUSIONS: Of the physical performance dimensions, aerobic component was associated with positive mental well-being independently of PA level. In relation to other physical performance components, the results point to the benefits of physical activity for mental well-being.

One Does Not Fit All: European Study Shows Significant Differences in Value-Priorities in Clean Sport.

Doping violates the Spirit of Sport and is thought to contradict the values which underpin this spirit. Values-based education (VBE) has been cited as a key element for creating a clean sport culture across age groups. Culturally relevant VBE requires understanding of the values that motivate athletes from different countries to practice their sport and uphold clean sport values. WADA's new International Standards for Education makes this study both needed and timely. Overall, 1,225 athletes from Germany, Greece, Italy, Russia, and the UK responded to measures assessing their general values, Spirit of Sport values, and their perceived importance of "clean sport". MaxDiff analysis identified the most important values to participants based on their respective country of residence. Correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between importance of clean sport and Spirit of Sport values. There were significant differences between participant nationality and their perceived importance of clean sport [F (4, 1,204) = 797.060, p < 0.000], the most important general values (p < 0.05), and Spirit of Sport values (p < 0.05). Moderate positive correlations were observed between the perceived importance of clean sport and honesty and ethics (r = 0.538, p < 0.005) and respecting the rules of sport (r = 0.507, p < 0.005). When designing the values-based component of anti-doping education programs, athletes' different value-priorities across countries should be considered.

Whistleblowing Against Doping Misconduct in Sport: A Reasoned Action Perspective With a Focus on Affective and Normative Processes.

Whistleblowing against doping misconduct represents an effective deterrent of doping use in elite competitive sport. The present study assessed the effects of social cognitive variables on competitive athletes' intentions to report doping misconduct. A second objective was to assess whether the effects of social norms on whistleblowing intentions were mediated by actor prototype evaluations and group identification and orientation. In total, 1,163 competitive athletes from Greece, Russia, and the United Kingdom completed a questionnaire on demographics, past behavior, social cognitive variables, and intentions toward whistleblowing. Regression analyses showed that whistleblowing intentions were associated with different social cognitive variables in each country. Multiple mediation modeling showed that attitudes and subjective norms were associated with whistleblowing intentions indirectly, via the effects of anticipated negative affect and group identification and orientation, respectively. The findings of this study are novel and have important implications about the social, cognitive, and normative processes underlying decision making toward reporting doping misconduct.

Whistleblowing against doping in sport: A cross-national study on the effects of motivation and sportspersonship orientations on whistleblowing intentions.

Whistleblowing against anti-doping rule violations and related misconduct has been recognized as an important deterrent of doping behaviour in competitive sport. However, research on whistleblowing against doping is scarce and the available studies have focused on small samples using qualitative and inductive approaches. The present study used quantitative methods to assess, for the first time, the association between self-determined motivation, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientations and intentions to engage in whistleblowing against doping misconduct. A total of 992 competitive athletes from Greece (n = 480) and Russia (n = 512) completed structured measures of self-determination, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientation beliefs, and intentions to report doping misconduct. Latent profile analysis classified athletes into clusters consistent with the theoretical predictions. One-way analyses of variance further showed consistently across countries that autonomous motivated athletes reported higher intentions to whistleblow, and athletes with higher scores in achievement goals and sportspersonship orientations had significantly higher scores in whistleblowing intentions, compared to those with lower scores in these characteristics in both countries. This is the first study to demonstrate the association between motivational regulations, achievement goals, sportspersonship beliefs, and whistleblowing intentions. The theoretical and policy implications of our study are discussed.

Physical Performance During the Menopausal Transition and the Role of Physical Activity.

BACKGROUND: To examine longitudinal changes in physical performance during the menopausal transition and the role of physical activity (PA) in these changes. METHODS: Based on follicle-stimulating hormone levels and bleeding diaries, women (47-55 years) were classified as early (n = 89) and late perimenopausal (n = 143) and followed prospectively until postmenopausal status, with mean duration of 17.5 and 13.8 months, respectively. Physical performance was measured by handgrip force, knee extension torque, vertical jumping height, maximal walking speed, and 6-minute walking distance. Physical activity was self-reported and categorized as inactive, low, medium, and high. Longitudinal associations of menopausal status, physical performance, and related changes with PA level were analyzed using generalized estimation equations adjusted for duration of hormonal therapy. RESULTS: A significant decline over the menopausal transition in handgrip force (-2.1%, 95% CI -3.8 to -0.4), knee extension torque (-2.6%, 95% CI -4.5 to -0.8), and vertical jumping height (-2.6%, 95% CI -4.2 to -1.1) and a significant increase in 6-minute walking distance (2.1%, 95% CI 1.4 to 2.7) were observed in the total sample. A significant interaction of PA by time was observed in handgrip force and in vertical jumping height. High PA women had greater increase in handgrip strength but greater decline in vertical jumping height than medium, low, and inactive women (all p ≤ .001). CONCLUSIONS: Both early and late perimenopausal women show decline in muscle strength and power during the transition to postmenopause. Physical activity seems to influence physical performance during the menopausal transition but understanding the benefits of PA requires interventional studies.

The role of physical activity in the link between menopausal status and mental well-being.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between menopausal status and mental well-being, and whether this relationship varies as a function of physical activity (PA). METHODS: Based on a hormonal analysis and bleeding diary, women aged 47 to 55 were categorized as pre (n = 304), early peri (n = 198), late peri (n = 209), or postmenopausal (n = 387). Mental well-being was assessed using the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. PA was self-reported and categorized as low, medium, and high. Associations between variables were analyzed using multivariate linear regression adjusted for age, marital and employment status, parity, self-reported mental disorder, use of psycholeptics and psychoanaleptics, and menopausal symptoms. RESULTS: Depressive symptoms were lower amongst the pre than postmenopausal women (B = 0.07, confidence interval 0.01-0.13). Menopausal symptoms attenuated these associations. Menopausal status showed no associations with life satisfaction, or with positive or negative affectivity.Women with high PA scored higher on positive affectivity, and the pre, early peri, and postmenopausal women scored higher on life satisfaction (B = 0.79, P < 0.001; B = 0.63, P = 0.009; B = 0.42, P = 0.009, respectively) and scored lower on depressive symptoms (B = -0.13, P = 0.039; B = -0.18, P = 0.034; and B = -0.20, P < 0.001, respectively) than their low PA counterparts. The pre and postmenopausal women with medium PA scored higher on life satisfaction (B = 0.54, P = 0.001; B = 0.038, P = 0.004, respectively) than those with low PA. CONCLUSIONS: Postmenopausal women reported marginally higher depressive symptoms scores compared with premenopausal women, but menopause was not associated with positive mental well-being. However, this association varies with the level of PA. : Video Summary:http://links.lww.com/MENO/A520.

Physical performance in relation to menopause status and physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine differences in physical performance (muscle power, muscle strength, aerobic capacity, and walking speed) across menopausal stages and potential of leisure physical activity (PA) to modify the impact of menopause on physical performance. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, women aged 47 to 55 were randomly selected from the Finnish National Registry and categorized as premenopausal (n = 233), perimenopausal (n = 381), or postmenopausal (n = 299) based on serum concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone and bleeding diary. Physical performance was measured by knee extension force, handgrip force, vertical jumping height, maximal walking speed, and 6-minute walking distance. PA level was assessed by self-report and categorized as low, moderate, or high. Multivariate linear regression modeling was used for data analysis. RESULTS: After including fat mass, height, PA, and education in the model, the postmenopausal women showed 12.0 N weaker (P < 0.001) handgrip force and 1.1 cm lower (P < 0.001) vertical jumping height than the premenopausal women. There was no significant interaction between menopausal stage and PA on physical performance. The peri- and postmenopausal women with a high PA, however, showed better performance in the maximal knee extension strength and 6-minute walking test, and showed greater lower body muscle power than those with a low PA. CONCLUSIONS: Menopause status is associated with muscle strength and power, whereas the association between menopause status and mobility/walking is clearly weaker. A high leisure PA level provides more capacity to counteract the potential negative influence of menopausal factors on muscle function.