Accumulated and distributed response-reinforcer arrangements during the treatment of escape-maintained problem behavior.

Contingent positive reinforcement has proven more effective in treating escape-maintained problem behavior than contingent negative reinforcement, particularly when problem behavior continues to produce escape. However, this research has overwhelmingly used distributed-reinforcement arrangements, where tasks and reinforcer access are interspersed throughout the work period. An alternative to interspersal involves allowing the individual to accumulate and then receive a larger quantity of reinforcement once work requirements are completed; this is known as an accumulated-reinforcement arrangement. The current study examined the efficacy of, and preference for positive (food) and negative (break) reinforcement contingencies delivered in accumulated and distributed arrangements in the treatment of escape-maintained problem behavior. In Experiment 1, accumulated break was preferred for 4 of 5 participants and accumulated food was preferred for 3 of 5. In Experiment 2, accumulated break was similarly effective to distributed break for 3 of 5 participants and accumulated and distributed food were equally effective for 4 participants.

"Other" behavior and the DRO: The roles of extinction and reinforcement.

Jessel et al. (2015) provided some evidence to suggest that "other" behavior is strengthened in the differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). The present study is a systematic replication of the Jessel et al. procedures. The effects of DRO and extinction on target responding, target-other responding (a response with an established history of reinforcement), and nontarget-other responding emitted by children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and children with no known diagnoses were compared. Other behavior increased in at least one DRO condition for each participant, suggesting that other behavior increases when using DRO, at least initially. Under extinction, target responding and target-other responding decreased to low rates for three of the five participants; however, rates of nontarget-other responding were elevated compared to the DRO condition. These results suggest that increased rates of target-other responding and nontarget-other responding during the DRO condition may be a result of extinction-induced variability.

Tummy time without the tears: The impact of parent positioning and play.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that infants spend supervised time in the prone (tummy) position to foster motor development and prevent cranial deformities. However, infants may not tolerate the position, and consequently, caregivers may avoid placing their infants in the prone position. The AAP recommends that caregivers provide toys or interaction during tummy time. We evaluated the individual and combined effects of a play mat and experimenter interaction on negative vocalizations and head elevation during tummy time-positive effects were limited. Next, we evaluated a parent-led intervention wherein mothers interacted with their infants, using a toy, while lying chest-to-chest. This intervention was associated with a reduction in negative vocalizations and an increase in head elevation for the majority of infants. Additionally, mothers rated the effectiveness of the parent-led intervention more favorably than the experimenter-led intervention, suggesting the effects of the parent-led intervention were also socially valid.

A primer for using multilevel models to meta-analyze single case design data with AB phases.

Meta-analytic methods provide a way to synthesize data across treatment evaluation studies. However, these well-accepted methods are infrequent with behavior analytic studies. Multilevel models may be a promising method to meta-analyze single-case data. This technical article provides a primer for how to conduct a multilevel model with single-case designs with AB phases using data from the differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate behavior literature. We provide details, recommendations, and considerations for searching for appropriate studies, organizing the data, and conducting the analyses. All data sets are available to allow the reader to follow along with this primer. The purpose of this technical article is to minimally equip behavior analysts to complete a meta-analysis that will summarize a current state of affairs as it relates to the science of behavior analysis and its practice. Moreover, we aim to demonstrate the value of analyses of this sort for behavior analysis.

Rules and Statements of Reinforcer Loss in Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior.

Providing a rule regarding consequences for behavior can increase the efficacy of differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) procedures in the treatment of severe problem behavior (Watts, Wilder, Gregory, Leon, and Ditzian, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 680-684, 2013). The purpose of the current study was to replicate and extend the literature on DRO procedures by evaluating the efficacy of rules and statements of reinforcer loss (SRL) in the treatment of severe problem behavior. Conditions included baseline, no rule DRO, rule DRO, and rule DRO with SRL. For 2 of 3 participants, neither the no rule DRO nor the rule DRO condition reduced problem behavior. The rule DRO with SRL condition produced a substantial decrease in problem behavior for all participants, suggesting that a consequent rule enhances the efficacy of DRO. The current study extends the literature on DRO procedures by providing data on nontargeted ("other") behavior. An increase in other behavior was observed for 2 participants.

Behavioral Interventions for Pediatric Food Refusal Maintain Effectiveness Despite Integrity Degradation: A Preliminary Demonstration.

Food refusal is commonly treated using behavioral treatment packages consisting of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) and escape extinction. However, the effectiveness of such behavioral interventions is inextricably linked to the integrity with which the procedures are conducted. Although previous research has evaluated the effects of treatment integrity failures for behavioral interventions related to severe problem behavior and academic skill acquisition, the effects of these failures in the area of pediatric food refusal remain unknown. We conducted a parametric analysis to assess the effects of varying levels of errors on the treatment efficacy of contingent tangibles and attention, and escape extinction. Once stable responding was observed during an initial evaluation of treatment, participants were exposed to sessions of reduced-integrity treatment in descending order (i.e., 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%) and subsequently exposed to full-integrity treatment (100% integrity). For one participant, integrity errors became detrimental to treatment when the level of integrity was decreased to 40%. For the other two participants, contingent tangibles and attention, and escape extinction remained effective despite being implemented with low integrity. Our preliminary demonstration suggests that behavioral interventions for pediatric food refusal remain effective despite considerable treatment integrity degradation.

Differential reinforcement-of-low-rate procedures: A systematic replication with students with autism spectrum disorder.

Becraft, Borrero, Davis, Mendres-Smith, and Castillo (2018) studied the effects of two different types of DRL schedules (full session and spaced responding) under 2 sets of stimulus conditions (with and without signals). Reduced rates of responding maintained under both types of DRL schedules, when signals were included. The present study represents a replication of procedures by Becraft et al. involving learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The results replicated those of Becraft et al. in that responding in both full-session and spaced-responding DRL schedules was low, but not eliminated. These results provide preliminary evidence to suggest that children with ASD are responsive to signals in DRL arrangements, which may set the stage for evaluation of signaled DRL arrangements for socially significant response forms.

Context influences preference for and level of physical activity of adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

The purpose of the current study was to replicate and extend Hustyi, Normand, Larson, and Morley (2012) by determining the effects of different contexts on physical activity displayed by adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities, and determining preference for various activities. Results indicated that an exergaming condition produced the highest levels of activity. Results of a preference assessment indicated that 2 out of 3 participants preferred the physical activity context to the sedentary. For the third participant, an intervention was included to increase activity. Although the intervention was successful, participant preference for the sedentary activity context remained unchanged.

The role of signals in two variations of differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate procedures.

Differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) schedules are used to decrease the overall rate of, but not eliminate, a target response. Two variations of DRL, spaced-responding and full-session, exist. Preliminary comparative analyses suggest that the two schedules function differently when unsignaled. We compared response rates under these two DRL variations with and without signals. In Experiment 1, five preschool students played a game in which points were earned under DRL schedules. In some sessions, a stimulus signaled when responses would be reinforced (S+) or not reinforced (S-). In others, only an S- was present. Signals (S+/S-) facilitated and maintained responding in both types of DRL schedules. In Experiment 2, we modified the signals with five different preschoolers. Instead of an S- only, we did not present any signals. Elimination and high variability of the target response were observed with the S- only and absence of S+/S-, respectively. Signaled DRL schedules are recommended for application.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rate Schedules Reduce Severe Problem Behavior.

Differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) schedules are reinforcement contingencies designed to reduce response rates. A common variation of the DRL arrangement is known as full-session DRL ( f-DRL), in which a reinforcer is presented at the end of an interval if the response rate during that interval is below a predetermined criterion. Prior human operant research involving arbitrary mouse clicks has shown that the f-DRL is likely to reduce target responding to near zero rates. Similarly, applied research has shown that the f-DRL is likely to reduce minimally disruptive classroom behavior. There are, however, relatively few successful applications of the f-DRL to severe forms of problem behavior (e.g., self-injurious behavior). Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of f-DRL on the severe problem behavior of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. For four participants, the f-DRL reduced severe problem behavior by clinically significant levels. Furthermore, results of a contingency strength analysis showed a strong negative contingency strength between target responding and reinforcer delivery for all participants.

Parametric analysis of delayed primary and conditioned reinforcers.

We examined the effects of delayed reinforcement on the responding of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Three conditions were evaluated: (a) food reinforcement, (b) token reinforcement with a postsession exchange opportunity, and (c) token reinforcement with a posttrial exchange opportunity. Within each condition, we assessed responding given (a) a no-reinforcement baseline, (b) immediate reinforcement, and (c) delayed reinforcement, in which responses produced a reinforcer after 1 of 6 delays. Results suggest that delayed food produced greater response persistence than did delayed tokens.

Differential reinforcement of other behavior increases untargeted behavior.

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) is a commonly used technique for behavior reduction, yet there has been little to no emphasis on the possible strengthening effects on other behavior. We included 2 responses (target and other) across 3 treatment schedules (DRO, extinction, and fixed time [FT]) in a human-operant procedure to determine the extent to which reinforcer presentation at the completion of the DRO interval could strengthen other responding. A computer program arranged for unsignaled changes in contingencies to a target response and never provided reinforcers for the other response. All 13 college-student participants exhibited more other responses than target responses during at least 1 exposure to DRO. Although there was a slight increase in other behavior during extinction, overall rates of other responding were never higher than that of the target response. Furthermore, 7 of 13 participants never emitted the other response during the FT condition. The findings provide some support for the response-strengthening effects of DRO.

Teaching generatively: Learning about disorders and disabilities.

Stimulus equivalence procedures have been used to teach course material in higher education in the laboratory and in the classroom. The current study was a systematic replication of Walker, Rehfeldt, and Ninness (2010), who used a stimulus equivalence procedure to train information pertaining to 12 disorders. Specifically, we conducted (a) a written posttest immediately after each training unit and (b) booster training sessions for poor performers. Results showed immediate improvement from pretest to posttest scores after training, but problems with maintenance were noted in the final examination. Implications of poor maintenance are discussed in the context of the current study and stimulus equivalence research in higher education generally.

Improving accuracy of portion-size estimations through a stimulus equivalence paradigm.

The prevalence of obesity continues to increase in the United States (Gordon-Larsen, The, & Adair, 2010). Obesity can be attributed, in part, to overconsumption of energy-dense foods. Given that overeating plays a role in the development of obesity, interventions that teach individuals to identify and consume appropriate portion sizes are warranted. Specifically, interventions that teach individuals to estimate portion sizes correctly without the use of aids may be critical to the success of nutrition education programs. The current study evaluated the use of a stimulus equivalence paradigm to teach 9 undergraduate students to estimate portion size accurately. Results suggested that the stimulus equivalence paradigm was effective in teaching participants to make accurate portion size estimations without aids, and improved accuracy was observed in maintenance sessions that were conducted 1 week after training. Furthermore, 5 of 7 participants estimated the target portion size of novel foods during extension sessions. These data extend existing research on teaching accurate portion-size estimations and may be applicable to populations who seek treatment (e.g., overweight or obese children and adults) to teach healthier eating habits.

Evaluating the presence versus absence of the reinforcer during extinction.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of extinction when the reinforcer was present versus absent. These effects were examined with 2 human operant procedures (i.e., a computer program and a mechanical apparatus) with college students as participants. Discriminable properties of the apparatus appeared to influence responding during extinction. In general, responding during extinction was less likely with the mechanical apparatus when the reinforcer was absent and more likely with the computer program.

A laboratory comparison of two variations of differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate procedures.

We compared 2 variations of differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) procedures: spaced-responding DRL, in which a reinforcer was delivered contingent on each response if a specified interval had passed since the last response, and full-session DRL, in which a reinforcer was presented at the end of an interval if the response rate was below criterion within the specified interval. We used a human-operant procedure and analyzed within-session responding to assess any similarities or differences between procedures. Data revealed a positive contingency between responding and reinforcement under the spaced-responding DRL schedule and a negative contingency under the full-session DRL schedule. Furthermore, 60% of the participants discontinued responding by the last full-session DRL session. Implications for the appropriate procedural and taxonomical usage of both DRL schedules are discussed.

Disruptive effects of contingent food on high-probability behavior.

The delivery of food contingent on 10 s of consecutive toy engagement resulted in a decrease in engagement and a corresponding increase in other responses that had been previously reinforced with food. Similar effects were not observed when tokens exchangeable for the same food were delivered, suggesting that engagement was disrupted by the contingent provision of the food, which may have functioned as a discriminative stimulus that occasioned competing responses.

Fixed-time schedule effects in combination with response-dependent schedules.

We evaluated the effects of fixed-interval (FI), fixed-time (FT), and conjoint (combined) FI FT reinforcement schedules on the responding of 3 adults who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia. Responding on vocational tasks decreased for 2 of 3 participants under FT alone relative to FI alone. Responding under FI FT resulted in response persistence for 2 of 3 participants. Results have implications for the maintenance of desirable behavior, as well as for situations in which FT treatment has been implemented for problem behavior and problem behavior is nevertheless reinforced by caregivers.

Concurrent reinforcement schedules for problem behavior and appropriate behavior: experimental applications of the matching law.

This study evaluated how children who exhibited functionally equivalent problem and appropriate behavior allocate responding to experimentally arranged reinforcer rates. Relative reinforcer rates were arranged on concurrent variable-interval schedules and effects on relative response rates were interpreted using the generalized matching equation. Results showed that relative rates of responding approximated relative rates of reinforcement. Finally, interventions for problem behavior were evaluated and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and extinction procedures were implemented to increase appropriate behavior and decrease problem behavior. Practical considerations for the application of the generalized matching equation specific to severe problem behavior are discussed, including difficulties associated with defining a reinforced response, and obtaining steady state responding in clinical settings.

Descriptive analyses of pediatric food refusal and acceptance.

Functional analyses of inappropriate mealtime behavior typically include conditions to determine if the contingent delivery of attention, tangible items, or escape reinforce food refusal. In the current investigation, descriptive analyses were conducted for 25 children who had been admitted to a program for the assessment and treatment of food refusal to determine if the consequences commonly delivered during functional analyses were observed during parent-conducted meals. The conditional probabilities for the delivery of attention, tangible items, and escape following food refusal and acceptance were compared to the unconditional probabilities of each event. Results showed that attention and escape most frequently followed refusal and differed depending on the topography of refusal. Implications for further evaluations of food refusal using similar methods are discussed.