Smoke exposure, hemoglobin levels and the prevalence of anemia: a cross-sectional study in urban informal settlement in Southern Ghana.

BACKGROUND: In sub-Saharan African cities, more than half of the population lives in informal settlements. These settlements are close to smoky dumpsites, industrial plants, and polluted roads. Furthermore, polluting fuels remain their primary sources of energy for cooking and heating. Despite evidence linking smoke and its components to anaemia, none of these studies were conducted on populations living in urban informal settlements. This study investigated the risks of anemia/mean Haemoglobin (HB) levels in an informal settlement in Accra, Ghana. Exposure to smoke was examined across various sources, encompassing residences, neighborhoods, and workplaces. METHODS: The study was a facility-based cross-sectional design among residents at Chorkor, an informal settlement in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. A questionnaire was administered at a community hospital during an interview to gather data on sources of smoke exposure in the household, in the neighbourhood, and in the workplace. A phlebotomist collected blood samples from the participants after the interview to assess their anaemia status. RESULTS: The population (n = 320) had a high prevalence of anemia, with 49.1% of people fitting the WHO's definition of anemia, while the average HB level was 12.6 ± 2.1 g/dL. Anemia was associated with the number of different types of waste burnt simultaneously [(1 or 2: prevalence ratio (PR): 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.14, 0.99-1.28: 3+: 1.16, 1.01-1.63, p-for-trend = 0.0082)], fuel stacking [(mixed stacking: 1.27, 1.07-1.20: dirty stacking:1.65, 1.19-2.25, p-for-trend = 0.0062)], and involvement in fish smoking (1.22, 0.99-1.06). However, the lower limit of the CIs for number of different forms of garbage burned simultaneously and engagement in fish smoking included unity. Reduced mean HB levels were associated with the number of different types of waste burnt simultaneously [(1 or 2: regression coefficient (ß): 95% confidence interval (CI), -0.01, -0.97- -0.99: 3+: -0.14, -0.77- -0.05)], current smoker [(yes, almost daily: -1.40, -2.01- -0.79: yes, at least once a month: -1.14, -1.79- -0.48)], Second-Hand-Smoking (SHS) (yes, almost daily: -0.77, -1.30- -0.21), fuel stacking [(mixed stacking-0.93, -1.33-0.21: dirty stacking-1.04, -1.60- -0.48)], any smoke exposure indicator in the neighbourhood (-0.84, -1.43- -0.25), living close to a major road (-0.62, -1.09- -0.49), and fish smoking (-0.41,-0.93- -0.12). CONCLUSION: Although the cross-sectional design precludes causality, smoke exposure was associated with mean HB levels and anaemia among populations living in informal settlements.

Anthropogenic nutrients and phytoplankton diversity in Kenya's coastal waters: An ecological quality assessment of sea turtle foraging sites.

We assessed ecological quality status (EQS) of coastal waters following claims of increasing sea turtle fibro-papillomatosis (FP) infections in Kenya, a disease hypothesized to be associated with 'poor' ecological health. We established widespread phosphate (P) and silicate (Si) limitation, dissolved ammonium contamination and an increase in potential harmful algal blooming species. Variations in the EQS was established in the sites depending on the indicators used and seasons. Generally, more sites located near hotels, tidal creeks, and estuarine areas showed 'poor', and 'bad' EQS during rainy period compared to dry season. Additionally, 90.1 % of the sites in 'poor' and 'bad' EQS based on dissolved inorganic nitrogen. Low dissolved oxygen, elevated temperature, salinity and ammonium, 'poor' EQS based on DIN, and potential bio-toxin-producing phytoplankton species characterized the FP prevalent areas, specifically during the dry season suggesting environmental stress pointing to the hypothesized connection between ecological and sea turtle health.

Urinary Pesticide Residual Levels and Acute Respiratory Infections in Children Under 5 Years of Age: Findings From the Offinso North Farm Health Study.

Background: Several environmental factors are associated with the risk of acute lower respiratory infections (ALRIs) and upper respiratory infections (URIs) in children under 5 years of age (YOA). Evidence implicating chemical pesticides remains equivocal. There are also no data on this subject in these children in Ghana. This study investigated the association between urinary pesticide residual levels and the risk for ALRIs/URIs in children under 5 YOA. Methods: The participants for this study were from the Offinso North Farm Health Study, a population-based cross-sectional study. Two hundred and fifty four parents/guardians who had answered affirmatively to the question "Has your child ever accompanied you to the farm?" were interviewed on household socio-demographic and environmental factors, being breastfed, child education, age, gender, and respiratory infection. One hundred fifty children were randomly selected to provide the first void urine. Results: The proportion of children with ALRI was 22.1% and those with URI was 35.8%. We observed a statistically significant exposure-response relation of p,p'-DDE (tertile) with ALRI (1.7-3.2 µg/L urine: prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.22 [1.05-1.70], ⩾3.2 µg/L urine: 1.50 [1.07-3.53] [P-for trend = .0297]). This observation was in children older than two YOA (P-for trend = .0404). Delta-HCH and beta-HCH (2-levels) were significantly associated with ALRI but not URI. The risk of ALRI increased with deltamethrin levels in an exposure-response manner (2.5-9.5 µg/L urine: 2.10 [1.37-3.24], ⩾9.5 µg/L urine: 4.38 [1.87-10.32] [P-for trend = .0011]) and this was also observed in children older than two YOA. Similar observation was noted for URI. Bifenthrin (>0.5 µg/L urine) was positively associated with ALRI and URI whereas permethrin (⩾1.2 µg/L urine) was not associated only with URI. Conclusions: The present study supports the hypothesis that exposure to chemical pesticides is associated with respiratory infections in children under 5 YOA.

Effects of Elevated Temperatures on the Growth and Development of Adult Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquitoes.

Higher temperatures expected in a future warmer climate could adversely affect the growth and development of mosquitoes. This study investigated the effects of elevated temperatures on longevity, gonotrophic cycle length, biting rate, fecundity, and body size of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes. Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) eggs obtained from laboratory established colonies were reared under eight temperature regimes (25, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, and 40°C), and 80 ± 10% RH. All adults were allowed to feed on a 10% sugar solution soaked in cotton wool; however, some mosquitoes were provided blood meal using guinea pig. Longevity was estimated for both blood-fed and non-blood-fed mosquitoes and analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to test the effect of temperature on gonotrophic cycle length, biting rate, and fecundity. Adult measurement data were log-transformed and analyzed using ordinary least square regression with robust standard errors. Increasing temperature significantly decreased the longevity of both blood-fed (Log-rank test; X2(4) = 904.15, P < 0.001) and non-blood-fed (Log-rank test; X2(4) = 1163.60, P < 0.001) mosquitoes. In addition, the fecundity of mosquitoes decreased significantly (ANOVA; F(2,57) = 3.46, P = 0.038) with an increase in temperature. Body size (ß = 0.14, 95% CI, 0.16, 0.12, P < 0.001) and proboscis length (ß = 0.13, 95% CI, 0.17, 0.09, P < 0.001) significantly decreased with increasing temperature from 25 to 34°C. Increased temperatures expected in a future warmer climate could cause some unexpected effects on mosquitoes by directly influencing population dynamics and malaria transmission.

Effects of elevated temperatures on the development of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the effects of temperature on the development of the immature stages of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes. METHODS: Mosquito eggs were obtained from laboratory established colonies and reared under eight temperature regimes (25, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38 and 40°C), and 80 ± 10% relative humidity. Larvae were checked daily for development to the next stage and for mortality. Pupation success, number of adults produced and sex ratio of the newly emerged adults were recorded. Larval survival was monitored every 24 h, and data were analysed using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. Analysis of variance was used where data followed normal distribution, and a Kruskal-Wallis test where data were not normally distributed. Larval and pupal measurements were log-transformed and analysed using ordinary least square regression with robust standard errors. RESULTS: Increasing the temperature from 25 to 36°C decreased the development time by 10.57 days. Larval survival (X2 (6) = 5353.12, p < 0.001) and the number of adults produced (X2 (5) = 28.16, p < 0.001) decreased with increasing temperature. Increasing temperatures also resulted in significantly smaller larvae and pupae (p < 0.001). At higher temperatures, disproportionately more male than female mosquitoes were produced. CONCLUSIONS: Increased temperature affected different developmental stages in the life cycle of An. gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes, from larval to adult emergence. This study contributes to the knowledge on the relationship between temperature and Anopheles mosquitoes and provides useful information for modelling vector population dynamics in the light of climate change.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Temperature on Anopheles Mosquito Development and Survival: Implications for Malaria Control in a Future Warmer Climate.

The rearing temperature of the immature stages can have a significant impact on the life-history traits and the ability of adult mosquitoes to transmit diseases. This review assessed published evidence of the effects of temperature on the immature stages, life-history traits, insecticide susceptibility, and expression of enzymes in the adult Anopheles mosquito. Original articles published through 31 March 2021 were systematically retrieved from Scopus, Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, ProQuest, and Web of Science databases. After applying eligibility criteria, 29 studies were included. The review revealed that immature stages of An. arabiensis were more tolerant (in terms of survival) to a higher temperature than An. funestus and An. quadriannulatus. Higher temperatures resulted in smaller larval sizes and decreased hatching and pupation time. The development rate and survival of An. stephensi was significantly reduced at a higher temperature than a lower temperature. Increasing temperatures decreased the longevity, body size, length of the gonotrophic cycle, and fecundity of Anopheles mosquitoes. Higher rearing temperatures increased pyrethroid resistance in adults of the An. arabiensis SENN DDT strain, and increased pyrethroid tolerance in the An. arabiensis SENN strain. Increasing temperature also significantly increased Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) expression and decreased insecticide toxicity. Both extreme low and high temperatures affect Anopheles mosquito development and survival. Climate change could have diverse effects on Anopheles mosquitoes. The sensitivities of Anopeheles mosquitoes to temperature differ from species to species, even among the same complex. Notwithstanding, there seem to be limited studies on the effects of temperature on adult life-history traits of Anopheles mosquitoes, and more studies are needed to clarify this relationship.

A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL WORK EXPOSURES AMONG ELECTRONIC WASTE WORKERS AT AGBOGBLOSHIE, ACCRA GHANA.

Occupational exposure associated with unstructured, informal e-waste recycling has received very limited attention. This study aimed to quantify the occupational physical exposures among informal e-waste workers at the largest e-waste site in Africa. A cross-sectional field survey of 163 male e-waste workers was conducted using a self-report occupational physical activity questionnaire, along with direct work observations, and pedometer estimates of walking activity for a subset of workers (n = 42). Results indicated significant differences in self-reported 7-day work exposures among the three main e-waste job categories, namely, collectors (n = 70), dismantlers (n = 73) and burners (n = 20). Prolonged walking, sitting and standing on five or more days in the workweek was frequently reported by collectors (87%), dismantlers (82%) and burners (60%), respectively. Nearly 90% of collectors and burners and 60% of dismantlers reported lifting and carrying on five or more days in the workweek. The exposure combinations identified suggest a risk for musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Findings call attention to the need for research examining potential associations between physical exposures and MSDs affecting e-waste workers in Agbogbloshie. The high exposure variability both between and within workers has implications for future exposure assessments conducted in unregulated, informal work settings.

Effect of Particulate Matter Exposure on Respiratory Health of e-Waste Workers at Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana.

Background: Direct and continuous exposure to particulate matter (PM), especially in occupational settings is known to impact negatively on respiratory health and lung function. Objective: To determine the association between concentrations of PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) in breathing zone and lung function of informal e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie. Methods: To evaluate lung function responses to PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm), we conducted a longitudinal cohort study with three repeated measures among 207 participants comprising 142 healthy e-waste workers from Agbogbloshie scrapyard and 65 control participants from Madina-Zongo in Accra, Ghana from 2017-2018. Lung function parameters (FVC, FEV1, FEV1/FVC, PEF, and FEF 25-75) and PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) concentrations were measured, corresponding to prevailing seasonal variations. Socio-demographic data, respiratory exposures and lifestyle habits were determined using questionnaires. Random effects models were then used to examine the effects of PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) on lung function. Results: The median concentrations of PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) were all consistently above the WHO ambient air standards across the study waves. Small effect estimates per IQR of PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) on lung function parameters were observed even after adjustment for potential confounders. However, a 10 µg increase in PM (2.5, 2.5-10 and 10 µm) was associated with decreases in PEF and FEF 25-75 by 13.3% % [ß = -3.133; 95% CI: -0.243, -0.022) and 26.6% [ß = -0.266; 95% CI: -0.437, 0.094]. E-waste burning and a history of asthma significantly predicted a decrease in PEF by 14.2% [ß = -0.142; 95% CI: -0.278, -0.008) and FEV1 by 35.8% [ß = -0.358; 95% CI: -0.590, 0.125] among e-waste burners. Conclusions: Direct exposure of e-waste workers to PM predisposes to decline in lung function and risk for small airway diseases such as asthma and COPD.

Development of an observation-based tool for ergonomic exposure assessment in informal electronic waste recycling and other unregulated non-repetitive work.

Most existing ergonomic assessment tools are intended for routine work. Time- and cost-efficient observational tools for ergonomic assessment of unregulated work are lacking. This paper presents the development of an observation-based tool designed to investigate ergonomic exposures among informal electronic waste workers that could be applied to other unregulated jobs/tasks. Real time coding of observation is used to estimate the relative duration, intensity, and frequency of exposure to key work postures, forceful exertions, movements, contact stress and vibration. Time spent in manual material handling activities such as carrying, lifting and pushing/pulling of working carts are also estimated. A preliminary study conducted with 6 e-waste workers showed that the tool can easily be used with minimal training and good inter-observer agreement (i.e., 89% to 100%) for most risk factors assessed. This new assessment tool provides effective and flexible options for quantifying ergonomic exposures among workers engaged in unregulated, highly variable work.

Temporal Patterns and Environmental Correlates of Macroinvertebrate Communities in Temporary Streams.

Temporary streams are characterised by short periods of seasonal or annual stream flow after which streams contract into waterholes or pools of varying hydrological connectivity and permanence. Although these streams are widespread globally, temporal variability of their ecology is understudied, and understanding the processes that structure community composition in these systems is vital for predicting and managing the consequences of anthropogenic impacts. We used multivariate and univariate approaches to investigate temporal variability in macroinvertebrate compositional data from 13 years of sampling across multiple sites from autumn and spring, in South Australia, the driest state in the driest inhabited continent in the world. We examined the potential of land-use, geographic and environmental variables to predict the temporal variability in macroinvertebrate assemblages, and also identified indicator taxa, that is, those highly correlated with the most significantly associated physical variables. Temporal trajectories of macroinvertebrate communities varied within site in both seasons and across years. A combination of land-use, geographic and environmental variables accounted for 24% of the variation in community structure in autumn and 27% in spring. In autumn, community composition among sites were more closely clustered together relative to spring suggesting that communities were more similar in autumn than in spring. In both seasons, community structure was most strongly correlated with conductivity and latitude, and community structure was more associated with cover by agriculture than urban land-use. Maintaining temporary streams will require improved catchment management aimed at sustaining seasonal flows and critical refuge habitats, while also limiting the damaging effects from increased agriculture and urban developments.