Transmissible long-term neuroprotective and pro-cognitive effects of 1-42 beta-amyloid with A2T icelandic mutation in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model.

The amyloid cascade hypothesis assumes that the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is driven by a self-perpetuating cycle, in which ß-amyloid (Aß) accumulation leads to Tau pathology and neuronal damages. A particular mutation (A673T) of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) was identified among Icelandic population. It provides a protective effect against Alzheimer- and age-related cognitive decline. This APP mutation leads to the reduced production of Aß with A2T (position in peptide sequence) change (Aßice). In addition, Aßice has the capacity to form protective heterodimers in association with wild-type Aß. Despite the emerging interest in Aßice during the last decade, the impact of Aßice on events associated with the amyloid cascade has never been reported. First, the effects of Aßice were evaluated in vitro by electrophysiology on hippocampal slices and by studying synapse morphology in cortical neurons. We showed that Aßice protects against endogenous Aß-mediated synaptotoxicity. Second, as several studies have outlined that a single intracerebral administration of Aß can worsen Aß deposition and cognitive functions several months after the inoculation, we evaluated in vivo the long-term effects of a single inoculation of Aßice or Aß-wild-type (Aßwt) in the hippocampus of transgenic mice (APPswe/PS1dE9) over-expressing Aß1-42 peptide. Interestingly, we found that the single intra-hippocampal inoculation of Aßice to mice rescued synaptic density and spatial memory losses four months post-inoculation, compared with Aßwt inoculation. Although Aß load was not modulated by Aßice infusion, the amount of Tau-positive neuritic plaques was significantly reduced. Finally, a lower phagocytosis by microglia of post-synaptic compounds was detected in Aßice-inoculated animals, which can partly explain the increased density of synapses in the Aßice animals. Thus, a single event as Aßice inoculation can improve the fate of AD-associated pathology and phenotype in mice several months after the event. These results open unexpected fields to develop innovative therapeutic strategies against AD.

Synapses do not facilitate prion-like transfer of alpha-synuclein: a quantitative study in reconstructed unidirectional neural networks.

Alpha-synuclein (aSyn) aggregation spreads between cells and underlies the progression of neuronal lesions in the brain of patients with synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's diseases. The mechanisms of cell-to-cell propagation of aggregates, which dictate how aggregation progresses at the network level, remain poorly understood. Notably, while prion and prion-like spreading is often simplistically envisioned as a "domino-like" spreading scenario where connected neurons sequentially propagate protein aggregation to each other, the reality is likely to be more nuanced. Here, we demonstrate that the spreading of preformed aSyn aggregates is a limited process that occurs through molecular sieving of large aSyn seeds. We further show that this process is not facilitated by synaptic connections. This was achieved through the development and characterization of a new microfluidic platform that allows reconstruction of binary fully oriented neuronal networks in vitro with no unwanted backward connections, and through the careful quantification of fluorescent aSyn aggregates spreading between neurons. While this allowed us for the first time to extract quantitative data of protein seeds dissemination along neural pathways, our data suggest that prion-like dissemination of proteinopathic seeding aggregates occurs very progressively and leads to highly compartmentalized pattern of protein seeding in neural networks.

Long term worsening of amyloid pathology, cerebral function, and cognition after a single inoculation of beta-amyloid seeds with Osaka mutation.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by intracerebral deposition of abnormal proteinaceous assemblies made of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides or tau proteins. These peptides and proteins induce synaptic dysfunctions that are strongly correlated with cognitive decline. Intracerebral infusion of well-defined Aß seeds from non-mutated Aß1-40 or Aß1-42 peptides can increase Aß depositions several months after the infusion. Familial forms of AD are associated with mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) that induce the production of Aß peptides with different structures. The Aß Osaka (Aßosa mutation (E693Δ)) is located within the Aß sequence and thus the Aßosa peptides have different structures and properties as compared to non-mutated Aß1-42 peptides (Aßwt). Here, we wondered if a single exposure to this mutated Aß can worsen AD pathology as well as downstream events including cognition, cerebral connectivity and synaptic health several months after the inoculation. To answer this question we inoculated Aß1-42-bearing Osaka mutation (Aßosa) in the dentate gyrus of APPswe/PS1dE9 mice at the age of two months. Their cognition and cerebral connectivity were analyzed at 4 months post-inoculation by behavioral evaluation and functional MRI. Aß pathology as well as synaptic density were evaluated by histology. The impact of Aßosa peptides on synaptic health was also measured on primary cortical neurons. Remarkably, the intracerebral administration of Aßosa induced cognitive and synaptic impairments as well as a reduction of functional connectivity between different brain regions, 4 months post-inoculation. It increased Aß plaque depositions and increased Aß oligomers. This is the first study showing that a single, sporadic event as Aßosa inoculation can worsen the fate of the pathology and clinical outcome several months after the event. It suggests that a single inoculation of Aß regulates a large cascade of events for a long time.

Functional and neuropathological changes induced by injection of distinct alpha-synuclein strains: A pilot study in non-human primates.

The role of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease has been heavily investigated since its discovery as a component of Lewy bodies. Recent rodent data demonstrate that alpha-synuclein strain structure is critical for differential propagation and toxicity. Based on these findings, we have compared, for the first time, in this pilot study, the capacity of two alpha-synuclein strains and patient-derived Lewy body extracts to model synucleinopathies after intra-putaminal injection in the non-human primate brain. Functional alterations triggered by these injections were evaluated in vivo using glucose positron emission tomography imaging. Post-mortem immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses were used to detect neuropathological alterations in the dopaminergic system and alpha-synuclein pathology propagation. In vivo results revealed a decrease in glucose metabolism more pronounced in alpha-synuclein strain-injected animals. Histology showed a decreased number of dopaminergic tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the substantia nigra to different extents according to the inoculum used. Biochemistry revealed that alpha-synuclein-induced aggregation, phosphorylation, and propagation in different brain regions are strain-specific. Our findings show that distinct alpha-synuclein strains can induce specific patterns of synucleinopathy in the non-human primate, changes in the nigrostriatal pathway, and functional alterations that resemble early-stage Parkinson's disease.

α-Synuclein Fibril, Ribbon and Fibril-91 Amyloid Polymorphs Generation for Structural Studies.

The human α-synuclein protein, identified as one of the main markers of Parkinson's disease, is a 140-amino acid thermostable protein that can easily be overexpressed in E. coli. The purification protocol determines the ability of the protein to assemble into amyloid fibrils of well-defined structures. Here, we describe the purification and assembly protocols to obtain three well-characterized amyloid forms (ribbon, fibrils, and fibril-91) used to assess their activity in biochemical and cellular assays or to investigate their atomic structure by cryo-electron microscopy and solid-state NMR.

Propagation of Distinct α-Synuclein Strains Within Human Reconstructed Neuronal Network and Associated Neuronal Dysfunctions.

Aggregated alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) in neurons is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) and other synucleinopathies. Recent advances (1) in the production and purification of synthetic assemblies of α-Syn, (2) in the design and production of microfluidic devices allowing the construction of oriented and compartmentalized neuronal network on a chip, and (3) in the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into specific neuronal subtypes now allow the study of cellular and molecular determinants of the prion-like properties of α-Syn in vitro. Here, we described the methods we used to reconstruct a cortico-cortical human neuronal network in microfluidic devices and how to take advantage of this cellular model to characterize (1) the prion-like properties of different α-Syn strains and (2) the neuronal dysfunctions and the alterations associated with the exposure to α-Syn strains or the nucleation of endogenous α-Syn protein in vitro.

C9ORF72-derived poly-GA DPRs undergo endocytic uptake in iAstrocytes and spread to motor neurons.

Dipeptide repeat (DPR) proteins are aggregation-prone polypeptides encoded by the pathogenic GGGGCC repeat expansion in the C9ORF72 gene, the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia. In this study, we focus on the role of poly-GA DPRs in disease spread. We demonstrate that recombinant poly-GA oligomers can directly convert into solid-like aggregates and form characteristic ß-sheet fibrils in vitro. To dissect the process of cell-to-cell DPR transmission, we closely follow the fate of poly-GA DPRs in either their oligomeric or fibrillized form after administration in the cell culture medium. We observe that poly-GA DPRs are taken up via dynamin-dependent and -independent endocytosis, eventually converging at the lysosomal compartment and leading to axonal swellings in neurons. We then use a co-culture system to demonstrate astrocyte-to-motor neuron DPR propagation, showing that astrocytes may internalise and release aberrant peptides in disease pathogenesis. Overall, our results shed light on the mechanisms of poly-GA cellular uptake and propagation, suggesting lysosomal impairment as a possible feature underlying the cellular pathogenicity of these DPR species.

Neurons with Cat's Eyes: A Synthetic Strain of α-Synuclein Fibrils Seeding Neuronal Intranuclear Inclusions.

The distinct neuropathological features of the different α-Synucleinopathies, as well as the diversity of the α-Synuclein (α-Syn) intracellular inclusion bodies observed in post mortem brain sections, are thought to reflect the strain diversity characterizing invasive α-Syn amyloids. However, this "one strain, one disease" view is still hypothetical, and to date, a possible disease-specific contribution of non-amyloid factors has not been ruled out. In Multiple System Atrophy (MSA), the buildup of α-Syn inclusions in oligodendrocytes seems to result from the terminal storage of α-Syn amyloid aggregates first pre-assembled in neurons. This assembly occurs at the level of neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, and even earlier, within neuronal intranuclear inclusions (NIIs). Intriguingly, α-Syn NIIs are never observed in α-Synucleinopathies other than MSA, suggesting that these inclusions originate (i) from the unique molecular properties of the α-Syn fibril strains encountered in this disease, or alternatively, (ii) from other factors specifically dysregulated in MSA and driving the intranuclear fibrillization of α-Syn. We report the isolation and structural characterization of a synthetic human α-Syn fibril strain uniquely capable of seeding α-Syn fibrillization inside the nuclear compartment. In primary mouse cortical neurons, this strain provokes the buildup of NIIs with a remarkable morphology reminiscent of cat's eye marbles (see video abstract). These α-Syn inclusions form giant patterns made of one, two, or three lentiform beams that span the whole intranuclear volume, pushing apart the chromatin. The input fibrils are no longer detectable inside the NIIs, where they become dominated by the aggregation of endogenous α-Syn. In addition to its phosphorylation at S129, α-Syn forming the NIIs acquires an epitope antibody reactivity profile that indicates its organization into fibrils, and is associated with the classical markers of α-Syn pathology p62 and ubiquitin. NIIs are also observed in vivo after intracerebral injection of the fibril strain in mice. Our data thus show that the ability to seed NIIs is a strain property that is integrally encoded in the fibril supramolecular architecture. Upstream alterations of cellular mechanisms are not required. In contrast to the lentiform TDP-43 NIIs, which are observed in certain frontotemporal dementias and which are conditional upon GRN or VCP mutations, our data support the hypothesis that the presence of α-Syn NIIs in MSA is instead purely amyloid-strain-dependent.

LGALS3 (galectin 3) mediates an unconventional secretion of SNCA/α-synuclein in response to lysosomal membrane damage by the autophagic-lysosomal pathway in human midbrain dopamine neurons.

Numerous lines of evidence support the premise that the misfolding and subsequent accumulation of SNCA/α-synuclein (synuclein alpha) is responsible for the underlying neuronal pathology observed in Parkinson disease (PD) and other synucleinopathies. Moreover, the cell-to-cell transfer of these misfolded SNCA species is thought to be responsible for disease progression and the spread of cellular pathology throughout the brain. Previous work has shown that when exogenous, misfolded SNCA fibrils enter cells through endocytosis, they can damage and rupture the membranes of their endocytotic vesicles in which they are trafficked. Rupture of these vesicular membranes exposes intralumenal glycans leading to galectin protein binding, subsequent autophagic protein recruitment, and, ultimately, their introduction into the autophagic-lysosomal pathway. Increasing evidence indicates that both pathological and non-pathological SNCA species undergo autophagy-dependent unconventional secretion. While other proteins have also been shown to be secreted from cells by autophagy, what triggers this release process and how these specific proteins are recruited to a secretory autophagic pathway is largely unknown. Here, we use a human midbrain dopamine (mDA) neuronal culture model to provide evidence in support of a cellular mechanism that explains the cell-to-cell transfer of pathological forms of SNCA that are observed in PD. We demonstrate that LGALS3 (galectin 3) mediates the release of SNCA following vesicular damage. SNCA release is also dependent on TRIM16 (tripartite motif containing 16) and ATG16L1 (autophagy related 16 like 1), providing evidence that secretion of SNCA is mediated by an autophagic secretory pathway.

Microglia jointly degrade fibrillar alpha-synuclein cargo by distribution through tunneling nanotubes.

Microglia are the CNS resident immune cells that react to misfolded proteins through pattern recognition receptor ligation and activation of inflammatory pathways. Here, we studied how microglia handle and cope with α-synuclein (α-syn) fibrils and their clearance. We found that microglia exposed to α-syn establish a cellular network through the formation of F-actin-dependent intercellular connections, which transfer α-syn from overloaded microglia to neighboring naive microglia where the α-syn cargo got rapidly and effectively degraded. Lowering the α-syn burden attenuated the inflammatory profile of microglia and improved their survival. This degradation strategy was compromised in cells carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. We confirmed the intercellular transfer of α-syn assemblies in microglia using organotypic slice cultures, 2-photon microscopy, and neuropathology of patients. Together, these data identify a mechanism by which microglia create an "on-demand" functional network in order to improve pathogenic α-syn clearance.

Microglial NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation upon TLR2 and TLR5 Ligation by Distinct α-Synuclein Assemblies.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder and is characterized by the formation of cellular inclusions inside neurons that are rich in an abnormal form of the protein α-synuclein (α-syn). Microglia are the CNS resident immune cells that react to misfolded proteins through pattern recognition receptor ligation and activation of signaling transduction pathways. Here, we studied activation of primary microglia isolated from wild-type mouse by distinct α-syn forms and their clearance. Internalization of α-syn monomers and oligomers efficiently activated the NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome via TLR2 and TLR5 ligation, thereby acting on different signaling checkpoints. We found that primary microglia effectively engulf α-syn but hesitate in its degradation. NLRP3 inhibition by the selective inhibitor CRID3 sodium salt and NLRP3 deficiency improved the overall clearance of α-syn oligomers. Together, these data show that distinct α-syn forms exert different microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation properties, thereby compromising its degradation, which can be prevented by NLRP3 inhibition.

Phenotypic manifestation of α-synuclein strains derived from Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy in human dopaminergic neurons.

α-Synuclein is critical in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease and related disorders, yet it remains unclear how its aggregation causes degeneration of human dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we induced α-synuclein aggregation in human iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons using fibrils generated de novo or amplified in the presence of brain homogenates from Parkinson's disease or multiple system atrophy. Increased α-synuclein monomer levels promote seeded aggregation in a dose and time-dependent manner, which is associated with a further increase in α-synuclein gene expression. Progressive neuronal death is observed with brain-amplified fibrils and reversed by reduction of intraneuronal α-synuclein abundance. We identified 56 proteins differentially interacting with aggregates triggered by brain-amplified fibrils, including evasion of Parkinson's disease-associated deglycase DJ-1. Knockout of DJ-1 in iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons enhance fibril-induced aggregation and neuronal death. Taken together, our results show that the toxicity of α-synuclein strains depends on aggregate burden, which is determined by monomer levels and conformation which dictates differential interactomes. Our study demonstrates how Parkinson's disease-associated genes influence the phenotypic manifestation of strains in human neurons.

TNF-α and α-synuclein fibrils differently regulate human astrocyte immune reactivity and impair mitochondrial respiration.

Here, we examine the cellular changes triggered by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and different alpha-synuclein (αSYN) species in astrocytes derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. Human astrocytes treated with TNF-α display a strong reactive pro-inflammatory phenotype with upregulation of pro-inflammatory gene networks, activation of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway, and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas those treated with high-molecular-weight αSYN fibrils acquire a reactive antigen (cross)-presenting phenotype with upregulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes and increased human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules at the cell surface. Surprisingly, the cell surface location of MHC proteins is abrogated by larger F110 fibrillar polymorphs, despite the upregulation of MHC genes. Interestingly, TNF-α and αSYN fibrils compete to drive the astrocyte immune reactive response. The astrocyte immune responses are accompanied by an impaired mitochondrial respiration, which is exacerbated in Parkinson's disease (PD) astrocytes. Our data provide evidence for astrocytic involvement in PD pathogenesis and reveal their complex immune reactive responses to exogenous stressors.

Suppression of α-synuclein propagation after intrastriatal injection in FABP3 null mice.

Accumulation and aggregation of α-synuclein (αSyn) trigger neuronal loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), which in turn causes motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. We previously demonstrated that fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP3), an intracellular fatty acid carrier protein, enhances αSyn neurotoxicity in SNpc and motor impairments after intranigral injection of αSyn fibrils. However, the temporal profile of αSyn fibril spread and their toxicity remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the temporal profile of αSyn fibril spread and its toxicity, which induces intracellular fibril formation. Monomeric and fibrillar aSyn assemblies were labeled with ATTO550 to distinguish the exogenous form from the endogenous species and injected into bilateral striatum in Fabp3+/+ (wild type) and Fabp3-/- mice. Accumulation of both monomeric and fibrillar exogenous αSyn in the SNpc was drastically decreased in Fabp3-/- mice compared to that in the Fabp3+/+ counterparts. Deletion of Fabp3 also prevented exogenous αSyn fibril-induced seeding of the endogenous αSyn into aggregates containing phosphorylated and filamentous forms in the SNpc. Consistent with these results, loss of dopaminergic neurons and subsequent impaired motor behavior were attenuated in Fabp3-/- mice. These results highlight the crucial role of FABP3 in pathogenic αSyn accumulation and its seeding ability. Taken together, FABP3 could be a potential therapeutic target against αSyn propagation in synucleinopathies.

Crucial Role of FABP3 in αSyn-Induced Reduction of Septal GABAergic Neurons and Cognitive Decline in Mice.

In synucleinopathies, while motor symptoms are thought to be attributed to the accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein (αSyn) in nigral dopaminergic neurons, it remains to be elucidated how cognitive decline arises. Here, we investigated the effects of distinct αSyn strains on cognition and the related neuropathology in the medial septum/diagonal band (MS/DB), a key region for cognitive processing. Bilateral injection of αSyn fibrils into the dorsal striatum potently impaired cognition in mice. The cognitive decline was accompanied by accumulation of phosphorylated αSyn at Ser129 and reduction of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic but not cholinergic neurons in the MS/DB. Since we have demonstrated that fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP3) is critical for αSyn neurotoxicity in nigral dopaminergic neurons, we investigated whether FABP3 also participates in αSyn pathology in the MS/DB and cognitive decline. FABP3 was highly expressed in GABAergic but rarely in cholinergic neurons in the MS/DB. Notably, Fabp3 deletion antagonized the accumulation of phosphorylated αSyn, decrease in GABAergic neurons, and cognitive impairment caused by αSyn fibrils. Overall, the present study indicates that FABP3 mediates αSyn neurotoxicity in septal GABAergic neurons and the resultant cognitive impairment, and that FABP3 in this subpopulation could be a therapeutic target for dementia in synucleinopathies.

Dopamine D2 Long Receptors Are Critical for Caveolae-Mediated α-Synuclein Uptake in Cultured Dopaminergic Neurons.

α-synuclein accumulation into dopaminergic neurons is a pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease. We previously demonstrated that fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP3) is critical for α-synuclein uptake and propagation to accumulate in dopaminergic neurons. FABP3 is abundant in dopaminergic neurons and interacts with dopamine D2 receptors, specifically the long type (D2L). Here, we investigated the importance of dopamine D2L receptors in the uptake of α-synuclein monomers and their fibrils. We employed mesencephalic neurons derived from dopamine D2L -/-, dopamine D2 receptor null (D2 null), FABP3-/-, and wild type C57BL6 mice, and analyzed the uptake ability of fluorescence-conjugated α-synuclein monomers and fibrils. We found that D2L receptors are co-localized with FABP3. Immunocytochemistry revealed that TH+ D2L-/- or D2 null neurons do not take up α-synuclein monomers. The deletion of α-synuclein C-terminus completely abolished the uptake to dopamine neurons. Likewise, dynasore, a dynamin inhibitor, and caveolin-1 knockdown also abolished the uptake. D2L and FABP3 were also critical for α-synuclein fibrils uptake. D2L and accumulated α-synuclein fibrils were well co-localized. These data indicate that dopamine D2L with a caveola structure coupled with FABP3 is critical for α-synuclein uptake by dopaminergic neurons, suggesting a novel pathogenic mechanism of synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease.

Seeding Propensity and Characteristics of Pathogenic αSyn Assemblies in Formalin-Fixed Human Tissue from the Enteric Nervous System, Olfactory Bulb, and Brainstem in Cases Staged for Parkinson's Disease.

We investigated α-synuclein's (αSyn) seeding activity in tissue from the brain and enteric nervous system. Specifically, we assessed the seeding propensity of pathogenic αSyn in formalin-fixed tissue from the gastric cardia and five brain regions of 29 individuals (12 Parkinson's disease, 8 incidental Lewy body disease, 9 controls) using a protein misfolding cyclic amplification assay. The structural characteristics of the resultant αSyn assemblies were determined by limited proteolysis and transmission electron microscopy. We show that fixed tissue from Parkinson's disease (PD) and incidental Lewy body disease (ILBD) seeds the aggregation of monomeric αSyn into fibrillar assemblies. Significant variations in the characteristics of fibrillar assemblies derived from different regions even within the same individual were observed. This finding suggests that fixation stabilizes seeds with an otherwise limited seeding propensity, that yield assemblies with different intrinsic structures (i.e., strains). The lag phase preceding fibril assembly for patients ≥80 was significantly shorter than in other age groups, suggesting the existence of increased numbers of seeds or a higher seeding potential of pathogenic αSyn with time. Seeding activity did not diminish in late-stage disease. No statistically significant difference in the seeding efficiency of specific regions was found, nor was there a relationship between seeding efficiency and the load of pathogenic αSyn in a particular region at a given neuropathological stage.

Intranasal administration of α-synuclein preformed fibrils triggers microglial iron deposition in the substantia nigra of Macaca fascicularis.

Iron deposition is present in main lesion areas in the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and an abnormal iron content may be associated with dopaminergic neuronal cytotoxicity and degeneration in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. However, the cause of iron deposition and its role in the pathological process of PD are unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the nasal mucosal delivery of synthetic human α-synuclein (α-syn) preformed fibrils (PFFs) on the pathogenesis of PD in Macaca fascicularis. We detected that iron deposition was clearly increased in a time-dependent manner from 1 to 17 months in the substantia nigra and globus pallidus, highly contrasting to other brain regions after treatments with α-syn PFFs. At the cellular level, the iron deposits were specifically localized in microglia but not in dopaminergic neurons, nor in other types of glial cells in the substantia nigra, whereas the expression of transferrin (TF), TF receptor 1 (TFR1), TF receptor 2 (TFR2), and ferroportin (FPn) was increased in dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, no clear dopaminergic neuron loss was observed in the substantia nigra, but with decreased immunoreactivity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and appearance of axonal swelling in the putamen. The brain region-enriched and cell-type-dependent iron localizations indicate that the intranasal α-syn PFFs treatment-induced iron depositions in microglia in the substantia nigra may appear as an early cellular response that may initiate neuroinflammation in the dopaminergic system before cell death occurs. Our data suggest that the inhibition of iron deposition may be a potential approach for the early prevention and treatment of PD.

Probing amyloid fibril secondary structures by infrared nanospectroscopy: experimental and theoretical considerations.

Amyloid fibrils are composed of aggregated peptides or proteins in a fibrillary structure with a higher ß-sheet content than their native structure. Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy only provides bulk analysis of a sample therefore it is impossible to discriminate between different aggregated structures. To overcome this limitation, near-field techniques like AFM-IR have emerged in the last twenty years to allow infrared nanospectroscopy. This technique obtains IR spectra with a spatial resolution of ten nanometres, the size of isolated fibrils. Here, we present essential practical considerations to avoid misinterpretations and artefacts during these analyses. Effects of polarization of the incident IR laser, illumination configuration and coating of the AFM probes are discussed, including the advantages and drawbacks of their use. This approach will improve interpretation of AFM-IR spectra especially for the determination of secondary structures of species not accessible using classical ATR-FTIR.

Distinct alpha-Synuclein species induced by seeding are selectively cleared by the Lysosome or the Proteasome in neuronally differentiated SH-SY5Y cells.

A major pathological feature of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the aberrant accumulation of misfolded assemblies of alpha-synuclein (α-Syn). Protein clearance appears as a regulator of the 'α-Syn burden' underlying PD pathogenesis. The picture emerging is that a combination of pathways with complementary roles, including the Proteasome System and the Autophagy-Lysosome Pathway, contributes to the intracellular degradation of α-Syn. This study addresses the mechanisms governing the degradation of α-Syn species seeded by exogenous fibrils in neuronally differentiated SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with inducible expression of α-Syn. Using human α-Syn recombinant fibrils (pre-formed fibrils, PFFs), seeding and aggregation of endogenous Proteinase K (PK)-resistant α-Syn species occurs within a time frame of 6 days, and is still prominent after 12 days of PFF addition. Clearance of α-Syn assemblies in this inducible model was enhanced after switching off α-Syn expression with doxycycline. Lysosomal inhibition led to accumulation of SDS-soluble α-Syn aggregates 6 days after PFF-addition or when switching off α-Syn expression. Additionally, the autophagic enhancer, rapamycin, induced the clearance of α-Syn aggregates 13 days post-PFF addition, indicating that autophagy is the major pathway for aggregated α-Syn clearance. SDS-soluble phosphorylated α-Syn at S129 was only apparent at 7 days of incubation with a higher amount of PFFs. Proteasomal inhibition resulted in further accumulation of SDS-soluble phosphorylated α-Syn at S129, with limited PK resistance. Our data suggest that in this inducible model autophagy is mainly responsible for the degradation of fibrillar α-Syn, whereas the proteasome system is responsible, at least in part, for the selective clearance of phosphorylated α-Syn oligomers.