Resective surgery in tuberous Sclerosis complex, from Penfield to 2018: A critical review.

Medically treated patients suffering from tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) have less than 30% chance of achieving a sustained remission. Both the international TSC consensus conference in 2012, and the panel of European experts in 2012 and 2018 have concluded that surgery should be considered for medically refractory TSC patients. However, surgery remains currently underutilized in TSC. Case series, meta-analyses and guidelines all agree that a 50 to 60% chance of long-term seizure freedom can be achieved after surgery in TSC patients and a presurgical work-up should be done as early as possible after failure of two appropriate AEDs. The presence of infantile spasms, the second most common seizure type in TSC, had initially been a barrier to surgical planning but is now no longer considered a contraindication for surgery in TSC patients. TSC patients undergoing presurgical evaluation range from those with few tubers and good anatomo-electro-clinical correlations to patients with a significant "tuber burden" in whom the limits of the epileptogenic zone is much more difficult to define. Direct surgery is often possible in patients with a good electro-clinical and MRI correlation. For more complex cases, invasive monitoring is often mandatory and bilateral investigations can be necessary. Multiple non-invasive tools have been shown to be helpful in determining the placement of these invasive electrodes and in planning the resection scheme. Additionally, at an individual level, multimodality imaging can assist in identifying the epileptogenic zone. Increased availability of investigations that can be performed without sedation in young and/or cognitively impaired children such as MEG and HR EEG would most probably be of great benefit in the TSC population. Of those selected for invasive EEG, rates of seizure freedom following surgery are close to cases where invasive monitoring is not required, strengthening the important and efficient role of intracranial investigations in drug-resistant TSC associated epilepsy.

Quantitative longitudinal imaging of activated microglia as a marker of inflammation in the pilocarpine rat model of epilepsy using [11C]-( R)-PK11195 PET and MRI.

Inflammation may play a role in the development of epilepsy after brain insults. [11C]-( R)-PK11195 binds to TSPO, expressed by activated microglia. We quantified [11C]-( R)-PK11195 binding during epileptogenesis after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE), a model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Nine male rats were studied thrice (D0-1, D0 + 6, D0 + 35, D0 = SE induction). In the same session, 7T T2-weighted images and DTI for mean diffusivity (MD) and fractional anisotropy (FA) maps were acquired, followed by dynamic PET/CT. On D0 + 35, femoral arterial blood was sampled for rat-specific metabolite-corrected arterial plasma input functions (AIFs). In multiple MR-derived ROIs, we assessed four kinetic models (two with AIFs; two using a reference region), standard uptake values (SUVs), and a model with a mean AIF. All models showed large (up to two-fold) and significant TSPO binding increases in regions expected to be affected, and comparatively little change in the brainstem, at D0 + 6. Some individuals showed increases at D0 + 35. AIF models yielded more consistent increases at D0 + 6. FA values were decreased at D0 + 6 and had recovered by D0 + 35. MD was increased at D0 + 6 and more so at D0 + 35. [11C]-( R)-PK11195 PET binding and MR biomarker changes could be detected with only nine rats, highlighting the potential of longitudinal imaging studies.

Positron emission tomography in epileptogenic hypothalamic hamartomas.

Whether the intrinsic epileptogenicity of hypothalamic hamartomas (HH) is responsible for the entire clinical spectrum of epileptic, neuropsychological and behavioural disorders associated with HH, remains an open issue, in as much as morphologically similar HH can be associated with dramatically different seizure types and cognitive outcomes. The aim of this study was to investigate brain glucose metabolism in patients with epileptogenic HH, in an attempt to identify signs of focal cortical and subcortical dysfunction which might correlate with other clinical data. We have studied five patients with epileptogenic HH using [18F]-fluoro-desoxyglucose and positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). All our patients also underwent an optimal MRI and a video-EEG monitoring, as well as an intra-cranial EEG recording in one of them. The anatomical distribution of FDG-PET abnormalities was compared to that of interictal and ictal electroclinical findings. All five patients demonstrated focal hypometabolism, ipsilateral to the predominant EEG abnormalities and side of HH. Hypometabolic areas greatly varied between patients, but were grossly concordant with the cortical regions suspected to participate in the ictal discharges in each individual. Epileptogenic hypothalamic hamartomas are usually associated with focal cortical hypometabolism in regions which might participate in the overall HH-driven epileptic network. Whether these cortical abnormalities only reflect the propagation of ictal discharges, or a potentially independent seizure onset zone remains unknown.

Asymmetrical localization of benzodiazepine receptors in the human auditory cortex.

In humans, administration of benzodiazepines (BZD) has been shown to have an asymmetrical effect on the medial olivocochlear system. Indeed, a decrease of evoked otoacoustic emission suppression by contralateral acoustic stimulation, which explores the medial olivocochlear efferent system, was observed in the right ear, with no left ear effect. This result suggests a possible left-right auditory pathway BZD receptor asymmetry. Given the anatomical link between auditory centers and the medial olivocochlear system, the existence of a larger volume of cortical connecting fibers in the left hemisphere, and the possible link between BZD receptor density and neuronal density, we tested the hypothesis of an asymmetrical localization of BZD receptors in the auditory system in 10 right-handed subjects using [11C]flumazenil positron emission tomography. Semi-quantitative measurements of flumazenil binding were evaluated in Heschl's gyrus showing a left-right asymmetry in favor of left auditory cortex. This result indicates a higher density of neurons in left auditory cortex. The possible link between neurochemical asymmetry and functional asymmetry, and the perceptual outcome of BZD administration, will be discussed.

Transient and falsely lateralizing flumazenil-PET asymmetries in temporal lobe epilepsy.

We have observed a falsely lateralizing mesial temporal [11C]-flumazenil binding asymmetry in three patients who had temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) with normal hippocampal volumes. This abnormality was not detected 3 months later in two of the patients who underwent a second PET study. We conclude that transient and falsely lateralizing changes of flumazenil binding might occur in patients with TLE and no hippocampal sclerosis.

Clinical utility of flumazenil-PET versus [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose-PET and MRI in refractory partial epilepsy. A prospective study in 100 patients.

We assessed the clinical utility of [11C]flumazenil-PET (FMZ-PET) prospectively in 100 epileptic patients undergoing a pre-surgical evaluation, and defined the specific contribution of this neuro-imaging technique with respect to those of MRI and [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose-PET (FDG-PET). All patients benefited from a long term video-EEG monitoring, whereas an intracranial EEG investigation was performed in 40 cases. Most of our patients (73%) demonstrated a FMZ-PET abnormality; this hit rate was significantly higher in temporal lobe epilepsy (94%) than in other types of epilepsy (50%) (P < 0.001). Most FMZ-PET findings coexisted with a MRI abnormality (81%), including hippocampal atrophy (35%) and focal hypometabolism on FDG-PET (89%). The area of decreased FMZ binding was often smaller than that of glucose hypometabolism (48%) or larger than that of the MRI abnormality (28%). FMZ-PET did not prove superior to FDG-PET in assessing the extent of the ictal onset zone, as defined by intracranial EEG recordings. However, it provided useful data which were complementary to those of MRI and FDG-PET in three situations: (i) in temporal lobe epilepsy associated with MRI signs of hippocampal sclerosis, FMZ-PET abnormalities delineated the site of seizure onset precisely, whenever they were coextensive with FDG-PET abnormalities; (ii) in bi-temporal epilepsy, FMZ-PET helped to confirm the bilateral origin of seizures by showing a specific pattern of decreased FMZ binding in both temporal lobes in 33% of cases; (iii) in patients with a unilateral cryptogenic frontal lobe epilepsy, FMZ-PET provided further evidence of the side and site of seizure onset in 55% of cases. Thus, FMZ-PET deserves to be included in the pre-surgical evaluation of these specific categories of epileptic patients, representing approximately half of the population considered for epilepsy surgery.