Maternal beliefs about the benefits and costs of child and adolescent friendship.

The goals of this study were to examine maternal beliefs about the primary benefits and costs of their children's time spent with friends, and to explore child age and gender differences in these beliefs. Participants were N = 512 mothers (Mchildage = 10.18 years; 11% ethnic minority). Open-ended responses to questions about the benefits and costs were coded and analysed, with results indicating that mothers consider opportunities for social skills and social-cognitive development a primary benefit of spending time with friends. Negative friend influence was the most commonly cited cost of friendship. Child age was associated with a number of maternal beliefs (e.g., mothers of adolescents were more likely than mothers of young children to report intimacy as a benefit), but child gender was not. Findings highlight the importance of considering child age in studies of maternal beliefs about friendship and set the stage for future research in this area.

Looking beyond time alone: An examination of solitary activities in emerging adulthood.

INTRODUCTION: Solitude represents an important context for emerging adults' well-being; but to date, little is known about how emerging adults spend their time alone. The goals of this study were to: (1) describe and characterize solitary activities among emerging adults attending university; (2) examine links between solitary activities and indices of adjustment; and (3) explore the moderating role of affinity for solitude in these associations. METHODS: Participants were N = 1798 university students aged 18-25 years (Mage = 19.73, SD = 1.46; 59.7% female) who completed assessments of how/why they spend time alone and indices of psychosocial adjustment (e.g., well-being, psychological distress, loneliness, and aloneliness). RESULTS: Emerging adults who spent time alone predominantly thinking reported poor adjustment outcomes (i.e., higher loneliness and psychological distress, and lower well-being) and dissatisfaction with solitude, whereas those who engaged in active leisure activities or passive technology use while alone reported lower psychological distress and higher satisfaction with solitude. The negative implications of doing nothing were not attenuated at higher levels of affinity for solitude. DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that some solitary activities are more beneficial than others.

Anxious-Withdrawal and Sleep Problems during Adolescence: The Moderating Role of Peer Difficulties.

Anxious-withdrawal is a well-established individual risk factor for psychosocial difficulties during adolescence. It is unknown, however, whether it also places youth at increased risk for physical health problems, such as sleep difficulties. This study examines the concurrent and prospective associations between anxious-withdrawal and six types of sleep difficulties (i.e., sleeping too much, sleeping too little, talking/walking in sleep, being overtired, nightmares, and general trouble sleeping). We further evaluate whether these associations differ for adolescents who are high versus low in exclusion and victimization. The participants were 395 adolescents (Mage = 13.61 years; 35% ethnic minority) who completed peer nominations of anxious-withdrawal, exclusion, and victimization at Time 1 (T1). Their mothers completed reports of sleep difficulties at T1 and at Time 2 (T2). Path analyses revealed unique associations between anxious-withdrawal and several types of sleep difficulties (e.g., sleeping too much) at T1. Analyses also revealed a significant interaction effect between T1 anxious-withdrawal and exclusion/victimization such that anxious-withdrawal was prospectively associated with trouble sleeping only for those young adolescents who are highly excluded/victimized. Our findings are the first to link anxious-withdrawal to a physical health outcome in adolescence and point to the need for future research to not only examine anxious-withdrawal and physical health but also to include assessments of peer difficulties.

Peer Reputation Configurations and Associations with Friendship Adjustment.

Peer reputation (PR) refers to how peer groups collectively view an individual in terms of socio-behavioral characteristics, such as aggression, social withdrawal, leadership, and prosociality. Despite considerable research on PR, few studies have considered PRs in relation to indices of friendship, particularly with a person-centered approach. The goal of the current study was to adopt such an approach and identify peer reputation configurations and their defining characteristics, and to examine how such configurations are linked to friendship prevalence and quality. Four hundred and twenty-six Italian seventh-grade students (57.3% male, Mage = 12.07) completed peer nomination measures of PR and reported on their friendships. Their mutual best friends were subsequently determined, and a friendship quality measure was completed. Teachers rated participants' problem behaviors and competencies. Cluster analytic methods produced four PR configurations that were defined by the following characteristics: (1) Shy/Excluded/Victimized, (2) Normative, (3) Aggressive/Arrogant, and (4) Prosocial/Popular. Teacher ratings supported these configurations such that Prosocial/Popular students were rated the lowest in problem behaviors and Shy/Excluded/Victimized and Aggressive/Arrogant were the highest in learning problems. Additional analyses showed numerous linkages between the configurations and friendship. For instance, Prosocial/Popular students were more likely to have mutual and satisfying friendships relative to students in the other groups. These findings provide new insights into the complex linkages between group- and dyadic-level peer experiences during early adolescence and may inform prevention and intervention efforts aimed at Shy/Excluded/Victimized youth struggling with peers.

Bidirectional Associations Between Friend Overprotection and Psychosocial Adjustment During Adolescence.

As friends increase in closeness and influence during adolescence, some friends may become overprotective, or excessively and intrusively protective. Engaging in overprotective behavior, and being the recipient of such behavior, may have positive and negative adjustment trade-offs. The current study examines, for the first time, bidirectional associations between friend overprotection and several adjustment trade-offs, including internalizing problems (i.e., depressive and anxiety symptoms), peer difficulties (i.e., rejection and physical and relational victimization), and positive friendship quality (i.e., closeness, help, and security) during early adolescence. Participants were 269 young adolescents (140 boys; Mage = 11.46, SD = 0.41) who completed self-report and peer nomination measures in their schools at two time points 4 months apart (Fall and Spring of the school year). Structural equation models revealed that being overprotected by a friend predicted decreases in friendship quality and was predicted by peer difficulties and internalizing problems (negatively). Being overprotective of friends predicted increases in internalizing symptoms and was predicted by peer difficulties. Findings are novel as they suggest that friend overprotection may be risky (and not beneficial) for both the overprotector and the overprotectee, setting the stage for future inquiry in this new area of peer relations research.

Best Friend's Popularity: Associations with Psychological Well-Being and School Adjustment in China During Early Adolescence.

Popularity has been empirically linked to psychological and several indices of school adjustment outcomes during childhood and early adolescence. Yet, best friend popularity in relation to the adjustment outcomes remains unclear, especially in more interdependent-oriented cultures. To address this gap, this study applied the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) to simultaneously considering whether, and how, the popularity of youth (actor effects) and their best friends (partner effects) contribute uniquely to psychological well-being and school adjustment outcomes, after controlling for social preference. Age and gender differences were also examined. Participants were 162 same-gender best friend dyads (81 boys, Mage = 11.24 years, SD = 1.18) from Shanghai, P.R. China. Among the results, both youth's own and their best friends' popularity were positively related to self-esteem and school attitudes, and negatively related to depressive symptoms. In addition, results from multi-group analyses revealed both actor and partner effects did not vary across gender. Finally, exploratory analyses showed that only actor effects varied across age for the associations between popularity and self-esteem and school attitudes. These findings highlight the important role of the best friend's popularity in promoting Chinese youth's experiences of psychological and school adjustment.

Secure Attachment Relationships With Mothers, But Not Fathers, Moderate the Relation Between Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Symptoms and Delinquency in Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether secure parent-adolescent attachment relationships moderate the longitudinal relation between 9th grade (G9) ADHD symptoms and 12th grade (G12) delinquency within a community sample of adolescents. METHOD: Participants included 335 9th graders, of whom 203 students completed measures again in 12th grade. Mothers reported on their adolescents' ADHD symptoms and aggressive behaviors, and adolescents completed measures of their own delinquency and their perceptions of their parent-child attachment relationships. RESULTS: G9 ADHD symptoms predicted increases in G12 delinquent behaviors. Moderation effects were also found such that G9 ADHD symptoms predicted G12 delinquency for only those youth who had moderate or low levels of secure maternal attachment. Paternal secure attachment did not moderate the effects of G9 ADHD symptoms on G12 delinquency. CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the importance of secure maternal attachment relationships in the development of delinquency among adolescents with ADHD symptoms.

Alone with my phone? Examining beliefs about solitude and technology use in adolescence.

In this study, we examined how technology impacts adolescents' perceptions of, and affective responses to solitude, as well as how adolescents' own motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for aloneness) were related to these reactions. Participants were N = 437 adolescents (297 girls; M age = 16.15 years, standard deviation (SD) = .50) who were presented with a series of hypothetical vignettes asking them to imagine themselves in the context of pure solitude (alone in their room with the door closed), as well as being physically alone but engaged in increasing levels of virtual social engagement, including passive (e.g., watching videos, scrolling, but no direct social engagement), active (e.g., texting), and audio-visual (e.g., Facetime) technology use. Following each vignette, participants reported their perceptions of being alone and positive/negative affective responses. We also measured general motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for aloneness). Among the results, adolescents perceived themselves as less alone in vignettes depicting increasing virtual social engagement. Affective benefits of increased virtual engagement were also found (e.g., less loneliness/boredom/sadness, greater social connection/contentment). However, these effects were moderated by solitude motivations, with different patterns evident as a function of participant shyness and affinity for aloneness. Findings highlight the importance of considering the nature of adolescents' technology use when alone, as well as motivations for solitude, when considering links between solitude and well-being.

Temporal approaches to the study of friendship: Understanding the developmental significance of friendship change during childhood and adolescence.

With longitudinal studies and recently-developed analyses that can model change, it has become increasingly clear that many types of peer experiences during childhood and adolescence are not static. Instead, such experiences change in numerous ways over time, with significant developmental implications. Most of this recent work, however, has focused on change and stability in group-level peer experiences such as peer victimization, peer exclusion, and popularity. As a result, less is known about the extent to which change occurs, and the developmental significance of such changes, in youths' dyadic-level peer experiences and specifically their friendships. Thus, the goal of this chapter is to illustrate the importance of studying friendship change during childhood and adolescence. To do so, we first review the literature on friendship, in general, and then that pertaining to friendship instability and friendship loss, two related areas of friendship change research that have received some theoretical and empirical attention. We introduce a new friendship development model, and informed by this model, encourage peer relations researchers to consider other types of change in friendships. The concluding sections concentrate on the importance of learning more about friendship change for intervention and prevention efforts with youth.

Evaluating Links between Social Withdrawal Motivations and Indices of Psychosocial Adjustment among Norwegian Emerging Adults.

Social withdrawal is the behavioral tendency to remove oneself from social situations - a tendency that often contributes to reductions in individuals' mental health. The current study evaluated the links between different motivations for social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability, social avoidance) and indices of psychosocial adjustment in a Norwegian sample of emerging adults. Participants were N = 194 Norwegian university students who completed self-report measures of life satisfaction, loneliness, and depressive symptoms, as well as withdrawal motivations. Among the results, a newly translated version of the Social Preference Scale-Revised (SPS-R) was validated for use in Norway. Findings showed that shyness was uniquely and positively associated with loneliness and depressive symptoms, as well as lower life satisfaction, whereas social avoidance was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Unsociability was uniquely linked to lower levels of loneliness and depressive symptoms. Findings provide novel information about the psychosocial correlates of social withdrawal motivations during emerging adulthood in the under-explored cultural context of Norway. Understanding nuances in the correlates of different motivations may aid in the development of culturally and developmentally sensitive interventions.

Normative Beliefs about Social Withdrawal in Adolescence.

The goal of this study is to explore normative beliefs about social withdrawal during adolescence. Participants were N = 419 adolescents (Mage = 16.13 years), who completed measures of normative beliefs about social withdrawal and their own social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability). Among the results, adolescents reported greater overall acceptance of unsociability compared to shyness, however, some gender differences also emerged. Specifically, adolescents were more accepting of unsociability when depicted by hypothetical females, and more accepting of shyness when depicted by hypothetical males. Participant social withdrawal was associated with greater acceptance of socially withdrawn behaviors in others. These findings provide a first look at normative beliefs about social withdrawal during a developmentally critical age period for this construct.

Friend Overprotection in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Autonomy Support and Psychosocial Adjustment.

Overprotection is a known risk factor in parent-child relationships, but has received little attention in the context of friendships. No studies have examined overprotection in emerging-adult friendships. Yet, overprotection may be especially significant during this developmental period given the prevalence of autonomy-seeking and risk-taking behaviors. In this study, we thus investigated whether overprotection is a feature of emerging-adult friendships that is meaningfully associated with psychosocial adjustment. We also examined whether friend autonomy support is one mechanism by which friend overprotection impacts outcomes. University students (N = 363) completed a new self-report measure of friend overprotection developed for this study, and previously validated measures of relationship qualities (friendship quality, helicopter parenting) and internalizing symptoms (social anxiety, depression). We found initial support for the reliability and validity of the new friend overprotection measure. A path analysis revealed positive associations between friend overprotection and friendship quality and internalizing symptoms, with friend autonomy support as an explanatory mechanism of these associations. Findings are novel as they suggest that overprotection is a salient feature of many friendships during emerging adulthood that may impact psychosocial adjustment in both helpful and harmful ways.

Revisiting the hypothesis that friends buffer against diminished self-esteem arising from poor quality parent-adolescent relationships: A replication study.

This replication study revisited conclusions from 2 previous investigations (Gauze, Bukowski, Aquan-Assee, & Sippola, 1996; van Aken & Asendorpf, 1997), which suggested that support from friends buffers against diminished self-esteem arising from poor quality relationships with mothers during the transition into adolescence. The aim of this replication study was to conduct an independent test of these findings with both concurrent and longitudinal data. Concurrent data for replication analyses were drawn from 4 projects, involving a total of 959 boys and 1,119 girls (ages 10 to 14) from Canada and the United States. Three samples reported participant ethnic descent: Africa (12.1%), Asia (5.6%), Europe (65.3%), Latin America (12.1%), and Native North America (0.9%). Child and mother reports of mother-child relationship quality assayed (a) maternal social support (in 3 data sets), and (b) family cohesion and adaptability (in 2 data sets). Main effects were replicated but hypothesized buffering effects were not. Maternal social support and friend social support were independently associated with adolescent self-esteem, concurrently, but not longitudinally. Family cohesion (but not adaptability) was associated with adolescent self-esteem, concurrently and longitudinally. Friend social support did not moderate associations between mother-child relationship quality and adolescent self-esteem, concurrently or longitudinally. The findings are consistent with a cumulative effects model wherein friends uniquely contribute to adolescent self-worth, over and above the contribution of mothers. The findings do not support claims that friends moderate associations between mother-child relationship quality and adolescent self-esteem. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Distinct Profiles of Relationships With Mothers, Fathers, and Best Friends and Social-Behavioral Functioning in Early Adolescence: A Cross-Cultural Study.

Adolescents' dyadic relationships are likely influenced by the cultural context within which they exist. This study applied a person-oriented approach to examine how perceived support and negativity were manifested across youths' relationships with mothers, fathers, and best friends, simultaneously, and how distinct relationship profiles were linked to adaptive and maladaptive functioning (aggression, anxious-withdrawal, prosociality) within and across cultures. Participants resided in metropolitan areas of South Korea, the United States, and Portugal (10-14 years; N = 1,233). Latent profile analyses identified relationship profiles that were culturally common or specific. Additional findings highlighted commonality in the relations between a high-quality relationship profile and adaptive functioning, as well as cultural specificity in the buffering and differential effects of distinct relationship profiles on social-behavioral outcomes.

Peer Influence during Adolescence: The Moderating Role of Parental Support.

Although many studies show that peers influence the development of adolescent internalizing and externalizing difficulties, few have considered both internalizing and externalizing difficulties in the same study, and fewer have considered the contributions of parents. Using a longitudinal sample of 385 adolescents, the contributions of best friends' internalizing and externalizing difficulties (as assessed in Grade 6; G6: Mage = 13.64 years; 53% female; 40% ethnic or racial minority) were examined as they predicted subsequent adolescent internalizing and externalizing difficulties (at G8); in addition, the moderating role of both maternal and paternal support (at G6) was explored. Structural equation modelling revealed that best friend internalizing difficulties predicted decreases, but that best friend externalizing difficulties predicted increases in adolescents' externalizing difficulties over time. Significant interactions involving both maternal and paternal support revealed that the negative impact of a G6 best friend having internalizing problems on later G8 adolescent externalizing problems was stronger at low levels of maternal and paternal support. The findings highlight the complex, and interactive, influences of friends and parents on the development of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology during adolescence, and underscore the importance of targeting both sources of social influence in research and clinical work.

Social Withdrawal and Aloneliness in Adolescence: Examining the Implications of Too Much and Not Enough Solitude.

Adolescence is a developmental period when spending time alone becomes particularly important. The aim of this study was to explore adolescents' experiences of solitude, with a focus on the implications of both spending too much time alone-as well as not enough time alone. Participants were N = 869 adolescents (15-19 years of age, M = 16.14, SD = 0.50), who completed a series of self report measures assessing time spent alone, activities while alone, social motivations (shyness, sociability), affect, and the recently introduced construct of aloneliness (i.e., negative feeling that arise from the perception that one is not getting enough time in solitude). Among the results, person-oriented analyses provided evidence of distinct subgroups of socially withdrawn adolescents (e.g., shy-withdrawn, unsociable, socially avoidant) as well as an alonely group (high aloneliness, low time alone). There was also preliminary support for the notion that solitary activity activities that are intrinsically motivated may be particularly effective at satisfying the need for solitude (and thereby reducing feelings of aloneliness). Taken together, these results highlight the importance of considering the implications of getting both too much-as well as not enough solitude for adolescents' well-being.

Associations Between Callous-Unemotional Traits and Peer-Rated Social-Behavioral Outcomes in Elementary and Middle School.

There is strong evidence that peers are of central importance to children's and adolescents' social and emotional adaptation and success in school. However, it remains an open question as to whether callous-unemotional (CU) traits, or interpersonal and affective deficits that pose risk for antisocial behaviors and psychopathy, are related to social-behavioral outcomes as assessed by those who are believed to have the most accurate perspectives on such outcomes - young adolescents' peers. Using data from a longitudinal and multi-method study of peer relations (N = 379, % female = 51.90, Mage = 10.24 at Time 1), the current study addressed this gap by examining the links between teacher-reports of CU traits and conduct problems (CP) and peer-reports of the extent to which young adolescents are aggressive, victimized, excluded, prosocial, and sociable during the Fall and Spring semesters in Grade 5 (Times 1and 2) and Grade 6 (Times 3 and 4). Results revealed that teacher-rated CP, but not CU traits, was associated positively with peer-reports of aggression. CU traits, but not CP, was associated positively with victimization/exclusion and associated negatively with prosociality. CU traits and CP demonstrated opposite relations with sociability, with CU traits demonstrating a negative association. Findings are discussed in the context of the broader literature examining the social-behavioral correlates of CU traits.

Being an other-sex crush during early adolescence in India: Investigating socio-behavioral and psychological concomitants.

INTRODUCTION: After years of neglect, there is now strong empirical interest in adolescents' romantic experiences. Most studies, however, focus on adolescents' romantic relationships in Western societies and fail to consider other-types of romantic experiences and adolescents who reside in non-Western societies. METHODS: The present study begins to address these research gaps by examining the social-behavioral and psychological concomitants of being viewed by many other-sex peers as a crush, or having high crush status, in a large (N = 445; 56% male; Mage = 13.77 years, SD = 0.43) longitudinal sample of young adolescents in urban India. RESULTS: Utilizing self- and peer-report data, results provide the first evidence that being viewed by many peers as an other-sex crush in India is related to some of the same (i.e., physical attractiveness), but also different (i.e., shyness) social-behavioral characteristics relative to what has been found in studies of young adolescents from the United States. Further analysis revealed new evidence regarding the unique social-behavioral (i.e., decreased physical aggression) and psychological (i.e., decreased social anxiety) outcomes associated with high crush status in urban India. CONCLUSIONS: Taken as a whole, results underscore the importance of considering the larger cultural context in studies of young adolescents' crush experiences.

Receiving Prosocial Behavior: Examining the Reciprocal Associations between Positive Peer Treatment and Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes.

This study investigates the prospective and reciprocal associations between positive peer treatment and psychosocial (popularity, preference, psychological distress) and behavioral (prosocial behavior) outcomes during early adolescence. Participants were 270 young adolescents (52% boys; Mage  = 11.84 years) who completed peer nomination and self-report measures as part of a 7-month longitudinal study (Wave 1; Feb. Grade 6; Wave 2: May, Grade 6; Wave 3: Sept., Grade 7). Cross-lagged autoregressive path models revealed reciprocal associations between positive peer treatment and prosocial behavior, such that Wave 1 positive peer treatment predicted increases in Wave 2 prosocial behavior and vice versa. Findings are novel, highlight the importance of considering positive peer treatment during adolescence, and set the stage for future work in this area.

Severe Social Withdrawal: Cultural Variation in Past Hikikomori Experiences of University Students in Nigeria, Singapore, and the United States.

Hikikomori (social withdrawal that lasts six months or longer) is a growing problem among Japanese adolescents and young adults, with recent estimates that approximately 1% of Japanese youths will suffer from an episode of hikikomori in their lifetimes. What remains unclear is whether hikikomori is a culture-bound syndrome or a condition impacting youths around the globe. Hence, the self-reported prevalence and psychosocial correlates of past experiences with hikikomori were examined in cross-sectional samples of university students from Singapore (n = 147), Nigeria (n = 151), and the United States (n = 301). Following tests of measurement invariance, comparisons showed that past experiences with hikikomori were related to elevated levels of current loneliness and depressive symptoms in each sample. However, analyses also revealed evidence of cultural variation in both the prevalence and the psychosocial correlates associated with past experiences of hikikomori, which taken together, provide preliminary evidence that the culture-bound characterization of hikikomori may not be appropriate.