Structures of LRP2 reveal a molecular machine for endocytosis.

The low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein 2 (LRP2 or megalin) is representative of the phylogenetically conserved subfamily of giant LDL receptor-related proteins, which function in endocytosis and are implicated in diseases of the kidney and brain. Here, we report high-resolution cryoelectron microscopy structures of LRP2 isolated from mouse kidney, at extracellular and endosomal pH. The structures reveal LRP2 to be a molecular machine that adopts a conformation for ligand binding at the cell surface and for ligand shedding in the endosome. LRP2 forms a homodimer, the conformational transformation of which is governed by pH-sensitive sites at both homodimer and intra-protomer interfaces. A subset of LRP2 deleterious missense variants in humans appears to impair homodimer assembly. These observations lay the foundation for further understanding the function and mechanism of LDL receptors and implicate homodimerization as a conserved feature of the LRP receptor subfamily.

Structure and functional determinants of Rad6-Bre1 subunits in the histone H2B ubiquitin-conjugating complex.

The conserved complex of the Rad6 E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme and the Bre1 E3 ubiquitin ligase catalyzes histone H2B monoubiquitination (H2Bub1), which regulates chromatin dynamics during transcription and other nuclear processes. Here, we report a crystal structure of Rad6 and the non-RING domain N-terminal region of Bre1, which shows an asymmetric homodimer of Bre1 contacting a conserved loop on the Rad6 'backside'. This contact is distant from the Rad6 catalytic site and is the location of mutations that impair telomeric silencing in yeast. Mutational analyses validated the importance of this contact for the Rad6-Bre1 interaction, chromatin-binding dynamics, H2Bub1 formation and gene expression. Moreover, the non-RING N-terminal region of Bre1 is sufficient to confer nucleosome binding ability to Rad6 in vitro. Interestingly, Rad6 P43L protein, an interaction interface mutant and equivalent to a cancer mutation in the human homolog, bound Bre1 5-fold more tightly than native Rad6 in vitro, but showed reduced chromatin association of Bre1 and reduced levels of H2Bub1 in vivo. These surprising observations imply conformational transitions of the Rad6-Bre1 complex during its chromatin-associated functional cycle, and reveal the differential effects of specific disease-relevant mutations on the chromatin-bound and unbound states. Overall, our study provides structural insights into Rad6-Bre1 interaction through a novel interface that is important for their biochemical and biological responses.

Computational model of E-cadherin clustering under force.

E-cadherins play a critical role in the formation of cell-cell adhesions for several physiological functions, including tissue development, repair, and homeostasis. The formation of clusters of E-cadherins involves extracellular adhesive (trans-) and lateral (cis-) associations between E-cadherin ectodomains and stabilization through intracellular binding to the actomyosin cytoskeleton. This binding provides force to the adhesion and is required for mechanotransduction. However, the exact role of cytoskeletal force on the clustering of E-cadherins is not well understood. To gain insights into this mechanism, we developed a computational model based on Brownian dynamics. In the model, E-cadherins transit between structural and functional states; they are able to bind and unbind other E-cadherins on the same and/or opposite cell(s) through trans- and cis-interactions while also creating dynamic links with the actomyosin cytoskeleton. Our results show that actomyosin force governs the fraction of E-cadherins in clusters and the size and number of clusters. For low forces (below 10 pN), a large number of small E-cadherin clusters form with less than five E-cadherins each. At higher forces, the probability of forming fewer but larger clusters increases. These findings support the idea that force reinforces cell-cell adhesions, which is consistent with differences in cluster size previously observed between apical and lateral junctions of epithelial tissues.

Family-wide Structural and Biophysical Analysis of Binding Interactions among Non-clustered δ-Protocadherins.

Non-clustered δ1- and δ2-protocadherins, close relatives of clustered protocadherins, function in cell adhesion and motility and play essential roles in neural patterning. To understand the molecular interactions underlying these functions, we used solution biophysics to characterize binding of δ1- and δ2-protocadherins, determined crystal structures of ectodomain complexes from each family, and assessed ectodomain assembly in reconstituted intermembrane junctions by cryoelectron tomography (cryo-ET). Homophilic trans (cell-cell) interactions were preferred for all δ-protocadherins, with additional weaker heterophilic interactions observed exclusively within each subfamily. As expected, δ1- and δ2-protocadherin trans dimers formed through antiparallel EC1-EC4 interfaces, like clustered protocadherins. However, no ectodomain-mediated cis (same-cell) interactions were detectable in solution; consistent with this, cryo-ET of reconstituted junctions revealed dense assemblies lacking the characteristic order observed for clustered protocadherins. Our results define non-clustered protocadherin binding properties and their structural basis, providing a foundation for interpreting their functional roles in neural patterning.

Positive-unlabeled convolutional neural networks for particle picking in cryo-electron micrographs.

Cryo-electron microscopy is a popular method for the determination of protein structures; however, identifying a sufficient number of particles for analysis can take months of manual effort. Current computational approaches find many false positives and require ad hoc postprocessing, especially for unusually shaped particles. To address these shortcomings, we develop Topaz, an efficient and accurate particle-picking pipeline using neural networks trained with a general-purpose positive-unlabeled learning method. This framework enables particle detection models to be trained with few sparsely labeled particles and no labeled negatives. Topaz retrieves many more real particles than conventional picking methods while maintaining low false-positive rates, is capable of picking challenging unusually shaped proteins (for example, small, non-globular and asymmetric particles), produces more representative particle sets and does not require post hoc curation. We demonstrate the performance of Topaz on two difficult datasets and three conventional datasets. Topaz is modular, standalone, free and open source ( http://topaz.csail.mit.edu ).

Visualization of clustered protocadherin neuronal self-recognition complexes.

Neurite self-recognition and avoidance are fundamental properties of all nervous systems1. These processes facilitate dendritic arborization2,3, prevent formation of autapses4 and allow free interaction among non-self neurons1,2,4,5. Avoidance among self neurites is mediated by stochastic cell-surface expression of combinations of about 60 isoforms of α-, ß- and γ-clustered protocadherin that provide mammalian neurons with single-cell identities1,2,4-13. Avoidance is observed between neurons that express identical protocadherin repertoires2,5, and single-isoform differences are sufficient to prevent self-recognition10. Protocadherins form isoform-promiscuous cis dimers and isoform-specific homophilic trans dimers10,14-20. Although these interactions have previously been characterized in isolation15,17-20, structures of full-length protocadherin ectodomains have not been determined, and how these two interfaces engage in self-recognition between neuronal surfaces remains unknown. Here we determine the molecular arrangement of full-length clustered protocadherin ectodomains in single-isoform self-recognition complexes, using X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron tomography. We determine the crystal structure of the clustered protocadherin γB4 ectodomain, which reveals a zipper-like lattice that is formed by alternating cis and trans interactions. Using cryo-electron tomography, we show that clustered protocadherin γB6 ectodomains tethered to liposomes spontaneously assemble into linear arrays at membrane contact sites, in a configuration that is consistent with the assembly observed in the crystal structure. These linear assemblies pack against each other as parallel arrays to form larger two-dimensional structures between membranes. Our results suggest that the formation of ordered linear assemblies by clustered protocadherins represents the initial self-recognition step in neuronal avoidance, and thus provide support for the isoform-mismatch chain-termination model of protocadherin-mediated self-recognition, which depends on these linear chains11.

Intrinsic DNA Shape Accounts for Affinity Differences between Hox-Cofactor Binding Sites.

Transcription factors bind to their binding sites over a wide range of affinities, yet how differences in affinity are encoded in DNA sequences is not well understood. Here, we report X-ray crystal structures of four heterodimers of the Hox protein AbdominalB bound with its cofactor Extradenticle to four target DNA molecules that differ in affinity by up to ∼20-fold. Remarkably, despite large differences in affinity, the overall structures are very similar in all four complexes. In contrast, the predicted shapes of the DNA binding sites (i.e., the intrinsic DNA shape) in the absence of bound protein are strikingly different from each other and correlate with affinity: binding sites that must change conformations upon protein binding have lower affinities than binding sites that have more optimal conformations prior to binding. Together, these observations suggest that intrinsic differences in DNA shape provide a robust mechanism for modulating affinity without affecting other protein-DNA interactions.

Homophilic and Heterophilic Interactions of Type II Cadherins Identify Specificity Groups Underlying Cell-Adhesive Behavior.

Type II cadherins are cell-cell adhesion proteins critical for tissue patterning and neuronal targeting but whose molecular binding code remains poorly understood. Here, we delineate binding preferences for type II cadherin cell-adhesive regions, revealing extensive heterophilic interactions between specific pairs, in addition to homophilic interactions. Three distinct specificity groups emerge from our analysis with members that share highly similar heterophilic binding patterns and favor binding to one another. Structures of adhesive fragments from each specificity group confirm near-identical dimer topology conserved throughout the family, allowing interface residues whose conservation corresponds to specificity preferences to be identified. We show that targeted mutation of these residues converts binding preferences between specificity groups in biophysical and co-culture assays. Our results provide a detailed understanding of the type II cadherin interaction map and a basis for defining their role in tissue patterning and for the emerging importance of their heterophilic interactions in neural connectivity.

Routine single particle CryoEM sample and grid characterization by tomography.

Single particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) is often performed under the assumption that particles are not adsorbed to the air-water interfaces and in thin, vitreous ice. In this study, we performed fiducial-less tomography on over 50 different cryoEM grid/sample preparations to determine the particle distribution within the ice and the overall geometry of the ice in grid holes. Surprisingly, by studying particles in holes in 3D from over 1000 tomograms, we have determined that the vast majority of particles (approximately 90%) are adsorbed to an air-water interface. The implications of this observation are wide-ranging, with potential ramifications regarding protein denaturation, conformational change, and preferred orientation. We also show that fiducial-less cryo-electron tomography on single particle grids may be used to determine ice thickness, optimal single particle collection areas and strategies, particle heterogeneity, and de novo models for template picking and single particle alignment.

Pathogenic IgG4 autoantibodies from endemic pemphigus foliaceus recognize a desmoglein-1 conformational epitope.

Fogo Selvagem (FS), the endemic form of pemphigus foliaceus, is mediated by pathogenic IgG4 autoantibodies against the amino-terminal extracellular cadherin domain of the desmosomal cadherin desmoglein 1 (Dsg1). Here we define the detailed epitopes of these pathogenic antibodies. Proteolytic footprinting showed that IgG4 from 95% of FS donor sera (19/20) recognized a 16-residue peptide (A129LNSMGQDLERPLELR144) from the EC1 domain of Dsg1 that overlaps the binding site for an adhesive-partner desmosomal cadherin molecule. Mutation of Dsg1 residues M133 and Q135 reduced the binding of FS IgG4 autoantibodies to Dsg1 by ∼50%. Molecular modeling identified two nearby EC1 domain residues (Q82 and V83) likely to contribute to the epitope. Mutation of these residues completely abolished the binding of FS IgG4 to Dsg1. Bead aggregation assays showed that native binding interactions between Dsg1 and desmocollin 1 (Dsc1), which underlie desmosome structure, were abolished by Fab fragments of FS IgG4. These results further define the molecular mechanism by which FS IgG4 autoantibodies interfere with desmosome structure and lead to cell-cell detachment, the hallmark of this disease.

Discovery of an O-mannosylation pathway selectively serving cadherins and protocadherins.

The cadherin (cdh) superfamily of adhesion molecules carry O-linked mannose (O-Man) glycans at highly conserved sites localized to specific ß-strands of their extracellular cdh (EC) domains. These O-Man glycans do not appear to be elongated like O-Man glycans found on α-dystroglycan (α-DG), and we recently demonstrated that initiation of cdh/protocadherin (pcdh) O-Man glycosylation is not dependent on the evolutionary conserved POMT1/POMT2 enzymes that initiate O-Man glycosylation on α-DG. Here, we used a CRISPR/Cas9 genetic dissection strategy combined with sensitive and quantitative O-Man glycoproteomics to identify a homologous family of four putative protein O-mannosyltransferases encoded by the TMTC1-4 genes, which were found to be imperative for cdh and pcdh O-Man glycosylation. KO of all four TMTC genes in HEK293 cells resulted in specific loss of cdh and pcdh O-Man glycosylation, whereas combined KO of TMTC1 and TMTC3 resulted in selective loss of O-Man glycans on specific ß-strands of EC domains, suggesting that each isoenzyme serves a different function. In addition, O-Man glycosylation of IPT/TIG domains of plexins and hepatocyte growth factor receptor was not affected in TMTC KO cells, suggesting the existence of yet another O-Man glycosylation machinery. Our study demonstrates that regulation of O-mannosylation in higher eukaryotes is more complex than envisioned, and the discovery of the functions of TMTCs provide insight into cobblestone lissencephaly caused by deficiency in TMTC3.

Mammalian O-mannosylation of cadherins and plexins is independent of protein O-mannosyltransferases 1 and 2.

Protein O-mannosylation is found in yeast and metazoans, and a family of conserved orthologous protein O-mannosyltransferases is believed to initiate this important post-translational modification. We recently discovered that the cadherin superfamily carries O-linked mannose (O-Man) glycans at highly conserved residues in specific extracellular cadherin domains, and it was suggested that the function of E-cadherin was dependent on the O-Man glycans. Deficiencies in enzymes catalyzing O-Man biosynthesis, including the two human protein O-mannosyltransferases, POMT1 and POMT2, underlie a subgroup of congenital muscular dystrophies designated α-dystroglycanopathies, because deficient O-Man glycosylation of α-dystroglycan disrupts laminin interaction with α-dystroglycan and the extracellular matrix. To explore the functions of O-Man glycans on cadherins and protocadherins, we used a combinatorial gene-editing strategy in multiple cell lines to evaluate the role of the two POMTs initiating O-Man glycosylation and the major enzyme elongating O-Man glycans, the protein O-mannose ß-1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, POMGnT1. Surprisingly, O-mannosylation of cadherins and protocadherins does not require POMT1 and/or POMT2 in contrast to α-dystroglycan, and moreover, the O-Man glycans on cadherins are not elongated. Thus, the classical and evolutionarily conserved POMT O-mannosylation pathway is essentially dedicated to α-dystroglycan and a few other proteins, whereas a novel O-mannosylation process in mammalian cells is predicted to serve the large cadherin superfamily and other proteins.

Structural basis of adhesive binding by desmocollins and desmogleins.

Desmosomes are intercellular adhesive junctions that impart strength to vertebrate tissues. Their dense, ordered intercellular attachments are formed by desmogleins (Dsgs) and desmocollins (Dscs), but the nature of trans-cellular interactions between these specialized cadherins is unclear. Here, using solution biophysics and coated-bead aggregation experiments, we demonstrate family-wise heterophilic specificity: All Dsgs form adhesive dimers with all Dscs, with affinities characteristic of each Dsg:Dsc pair. Crystal structures of ectodomains from Dsg2 and Dsg3 and from Dsc1 and Dsc2 show binding through a strand-swap mechanism similar to that of homophilic classical cadherins. However, conserved charged amino acids inhibit Dsg:Dsg and Dsc:Dsc interactions by same-charge repulsion and promote heterophilic Dsg:Dsc interactions through opposite-charge attraction. These findings show that Dsg:Dsc heterodimers represent the fundamental adhesive unit of desmosomes and provide a structural framework for understanding desmosome assembly.

Structural and energetic determinants of adhesive binding specificity in type I cadherins.

Type I cadherin cell-adhesion proteins are similar in sequence and structure and yet are different enough to mediate highly specific cell-cell recognition phenomena. It has previously been shown that small differences in the homophilic and heterophilic binding affinities of different type I family members can account for the differential cell-sorting behavior. Here we use a combination of X-ray crystallography, analytical ultracentrifugation, surface plasmon resonance and double electron-electron resonance (DEER) electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to identify the molecular determinants of type I cadherin dimerization affinities. Small changes in sequence are found to produce subtle structural and dynamical changes that impact relative affinities, in part via electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, and in part through entropic effects because of increased conformational heterogeneity in the bound states as revealed by DEER distance mapping in the dimers. These findings highlight the remarkable ability of evolution to exploit a wide range of molecular properties to produce closely related members of the same protein family that have affinity differences finely tuned to mediate their biological roles.

Nectin ectodomain structures reveal a canonical adhesive interface.

Nectins are immunoglobulin superfamily glycoproteins that mediate intercellular adhesion in many vertebrate tissues. Homophilic and heterophilic interactions between nectin family members help mediate tissue patterning. We determined the homophilic binding affinities and heterophilic specificities of all four nectins and the related protein nectin-like 5 (Necl-5) from human and mouse, revealing a range of homophilic interaction strengths and a defined heterophilic specificity pattern. To understand the molecular basis of their adhesion and specificity, we determined the crystal structures of natively glycosylated full ectodomains or adhesive fragments of all four nectins and Necl-5. All of the crystal structures revealed dimeric nectins bound through a stereotyped interface that was previously proposed to represent a cis dimer. However, conservation of this interface and the results of targeted cross-linking experiments showed that this dimer probably represents the adhesive trans interaction. The structure of the dimer provides a simple molecular explanation for the adhesive binding specificity of nectins.

Structures from anomalous diffraction of native biological macromolecules.

Crystal structure analyses for biological macromolecules without known structural relatives entail solving the crystallographic phase problem. Typical de novo phase evaluations depend on incorporating heavier atoms than those found natively; most commonly, multi- or single-wavelength anomalous diffraction (MAD or SAD) experiments exploit selenomethionyl proteins. Here, we realize routine structure determination using intrinsic anomalous scattering from native macromolecules. We devised robust procedures for enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio in the slight anomalous scattering from generic native structures by combining data measured from multiple crystals at lower-than-usual x-ray energy. Using this multicrystal SAD method (5 to 13 equivalent crystals), we determined structures at modest resolution (2.8 to 2.3 angstroms) for native proteins varying in size (127 to 1148 unique residues) and number of sulfur sites (3 to 28). With no requirement for heavy-atom incorporation, such experiments provide an attractive alternative to selenomethionyl SAD experiments.

Thinking outside the cell: how cadherins drive adhesion.

Cadherins are a superfamily of cell surface glycoproteins whose ectodomains contain multiple repeats of ß-sandwich extracellular cadherin (EC) domains that adopt a similar fold to immunoglobulin domains. The best characterized cadherins are the vertebrate 'classical' cadherins, which mediate adhesion via trans homodimerization between their membrane-distal EC1 domains that extend from apposed cells, and assemble intercellular adherens junctions through cis clustering. To form mature trans adhesive dimers, cadherin domains from apposed cells dimerize in a 'strand-swapped' conformation. This occurs in a two-step binding process involving a fast-binding intermediate called the 'X-dimer'. Trans dimers are less flexible than cadherin monomers, a factor that drives junction assembly following cell-cell contact by reducing the entropic cost associated with the formation of lateral cis oligomers. Cadherins outside the classical subfamily appear to have evolved distinct adhesive mechanisms that are only now beginning to be understood.

Crystal structure of the ligand binding domain of netrin G2.

Netrin G proteins represent a small family of synaptic cell adhesion molecules related to netrins and to the polymerization domains of laminins. Two netrin G proteins are encoded in vertebrate genomes, netrins G1 and G2, which are known to bind the leucine-rich repeat proteins netrin G ligand (NGL)-1 and NGL-2, respectively. Netrin G proteins share a common multi-domain architecture comprising a laminin N-terminal (LN) domain followed by three laminin epidermal growth factor-like (LE) domains and a C' region containing a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. Here, we use deletion analysis to show that the LN domain region of netrin Gs contains the binding site for NGLs to which they bind with 1:1 stoichiometry and sub-micromolar affinity. Netrin Gs are alternatively spliced in their LE domain regions, but the binding region, the LN domain, is identical in all splice forms. We determined the crystal structure for a fragment comprising the LN domain and domain LE1 of netrin G2 by sulfur single-wavelength anomalous diffraction phasing and refined it to 1.8 Å resolution. The structure reveals an overall architecture similar to that of laminin α chain LN domains but includes significant differences including a Ca(2+) binding site in the LN domain. These results reveal the minimal binding unit for interaction of netrin Gs with NGLs, define structural features specific to netrin Gs, and suggest that netrin G alternative splicing is not involved in NGL recognition.

The extracellular architecture of adherens junctions revealed by crystal structures of type I cadherins.

Adherens junctions, which play a central role in intercellular adhesion, comprise clusters of type I classical cadherins that bind via extracellular domains extended from opposing cell surfaces. We show that a molecular layer seen in crystal structures of E- and N-cadherin ectodomains reported here and in a previous C-cadherin structure corresponds to the extracellular architecture of adherens junctions. In all three ectodomain crystals, cadherins dimerize through a trans adhesive interface and are connected by a second, cis, interface. Assemblies formed by E-cadherin ectodomains coated on liposomes also appear to adopt this structure. Fluorescent imaging of junctions formed from wild-type and mutant E-cadherins in cultured cells confirm conclusions derived from structural evidence. Mutations that interfere with the trans interface ablate adhesion, whereas cis interface mutations disrupt stable junction formation. Our observations are consistent with a model for junction assembly involving strong trans and weak cis interactions localized in the ectodomain.