Colour polymorphism associated with a gene duplication in male wood tiger moths.

Colour is often used as an aposematic warning signal, with predator learning expected to lead to a single colour pattern within a population. However, there are many puzzling cases where aposematic signals are also polymorphic. The wood tiger moth, Arctia plantaginis, displays bright hindwing colours associated with unpalatability, and males have discrete colour morphs which vary in frequency between localities. In Finland, both white and yellow morphs can be found, and these colour morphs also differ in behavioural and life-history traits. Here, we show that male colour is linked to an extra copy of a yellow family gene that is only present in the white morphs. This white-specific duplication, which we name valkea, is highly upregulated during wing development. CRISPR targeting valkea resulted in editing of both valkea and its paralog, yellow-e, and led to the production of yellow wings. We also characterise the pigments responsible for yellow, white, and black colouration, showing that yellow is partly produced by pheomelanins, while black is dopamine-derived eumelanin. Our results add to a growing number of studies on the genetic architecture of complex and seemingly paradoxical polymorphisms, and the role of gene duplications and structural variation in adaptive evolution.

Exploring the efficacy of a low intensity psychological intervention for family members and carers of individuals with a first episode of psychosis in early intervention services.

AIM: The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy, and explore carers' experience, of a brief carer focussed intervention in an Early Intervention in Psychosis (EIP) service using a mixed methods approach. METHODS: Carers within EIP services were invited to have the intervention, comprising a psychoeducation and wellbeing component, and 153 carers completed routine outcome measures including the Brief Experience of Caregiving Inventory (BECI), The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWEBS) and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) at baseline and after the completion of the intervention. Separately, nine carers took part in semi-structured interviews about their experience of the intervention. RESULTS: The intervention resulted in improvement of overall well-being, a reduction in self-reported anxiety and caregiving experience relating to difficult behaviours and stigma/effects on the family. Overall, the carers' subjective experiences of the intervention were positive. Thematic analysis indicated epistemic trust indexed by the connection carers achieved with the service, an experience of being valued and of experiencing change through the intervention. CONCLUSION: A short, 8 weeks intervention delivered by assistant psychologists, may offer an effective method for facilitating understanding of the illness and acclimatizing to new challenges. Exploring the effectiveness of psychoeducation and capturing this with specific measures may allow the service to make meaningful adaptations to their intervention.

The genetic basis of structural colour variation in mimetic Heliconius butterflies.

Structural colours, produced by the reflection of light from ultrastructures, have evolved multiple times in butterflies. Unlike pigmentary colours and patterns, little is known about the genetic basis of these colours. Reflective structures on wing-scale ridges are responsible for iridescent structural colour in many butterflies, including the Müllerian mimics Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene. Here, we quantify aspects of scale ultrastructure variation and colour in crosses between iridescent and non-iridescent subspecies of both of these species and perform quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping. We show that iridescent structural colour has a complex genetic basis in both species, with offspring from crosses having a wide variation in blue colour (both hue and brightness) and scale structure measurements. We detect two different genomic regions in each species that explain modest amounts of this variation, with a sex-linked QTL in H. erato but not H. melpomene. We also find differences between species in the relationships between structure and colour, overall suggesting that these species have followed different evolutionary trajectories in their evolution of structural colour. We then identify genes within the QTL intervals that are differentially expressed between subspecies and/or wing regions, revealing likely candidates for genes controlling structural colour formation. This article is part of the theme issue 'Genetic basis of adaptation and speciation: from loci to causative mutations'.

Limited genetic parallels underlie convergent evolution of quantitative pattern variation in mimetic butterflies.

Mimetic systems allow us to address the question of whether the same genes control similar phenotypes in different species. Although widespread parallels have been found for major effect loci, much less is known about genes that control quantitative trait variation. In this study, we identify and compare the loci that control subtle changes in the size and shape of forewing pattern elements in two Heliconius butterfly co-mimics. We use quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis with a multivariate phenotyping approach to map the variation in red pattern elements across the whole forewing surface of Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene. These results are compared with a QTL analysis of univariate trait changes, and show that our resolution for identifying small effect loci is somewhat improved with the multivariate approach, but also that different loci are detected with these different approaches. QTL likely corresponding to the known patterning gene optix were found in both species but otherwise, a remarkably low level of genetic parallelism was found. This lack of similarity indicates that the genetic basis of convergent traits may not be as predictable as assumed from studies that focus solely on Mendelian traits.

Physical fitness is associated with prostaglandin F2α isomers during pregnancy.

INTRODUCTION: Pregnancy and physical activity are associated with oxidative stress and immune changes. We hypothesized that pregnant women physically more active in early pregnancy will display a better oxidative stress management and inflammatory response later in pregnancy compared with less active pregnant women. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Maternal physical activity using accelerometry monitors for 1 week and cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2 at anaerobic threshold) were assessed at 14-18 weeks in 58 pregnant women. Plasma and erythrocytes membrane samples were obtained from maternal blood samples at 14-18 and 34-37 weeks of pregnancy. Pro-inflammatory prostaglandin (PG) F2α and oxidative stress-derived F2-isoprostanes were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Higher physical activity levels at 14-18 weeks measured by mean counts per minute, >30 min/d of moderate to vigorous activity or >6500 steps/d at 14-18 weeks of pregnancy were associated with lower levels of total plasmatic PGF2α later in pregnancy. Concentrations of 5 F2-isomers in erythrocyte membranes in late pregnancy were significantly higher in the third (17.5-19.5 mL kg-1 min-1) and/or fourth (19.6-27.7 mL kg-1 min-1) quartiles of cardio-respiratory fitness compared to the first quartile (13.9-15.9 mL kg-1 min-1). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, higher cardio-respiratory fitness in early pregnancy is associated with enhanced erythrocyte membranes oxidation at 34-37 weeks reflecting a higher oxygen transfer capacity. Also, the most active women experienced lower circulating levels of pro-inflammatory PGF2α in plasma at 34-37 weeks, a marker associated with adverse antenatal inflammation-associated conditions. These results support the practice of physical activity by pregnant women.

Phenotypic variation in Heliconius erato crosses shows that iridescent structural colour is sex-linked and controlled by multiple genes.

Bright, highly reflective iridescent colours can be seen across nature and are produced by the scattering of light from nanostructures. Heliconius butterflies have been widely studied for their diversity and mimicry of wing colour patterns. Despite iridescence evolving multiple times in this genus, little is known about the genetic basis of the colour and the development of the structures which produce it. Heliconius erato can be found across Central and South America, but only races found in western Ecuador and Colombia have developed blue iridescent colour. Here, we use crosses between iridescent and non-iridescent races of H. erato to study phenotypic variation in the resulting F2 generation. Using measurements of blue colour from photographs, we find that iridescent structural colour is a quantitative trait controlled by multiple genes, with strong evidence for loci on the Z sex chromosome. Iridescence is not linked to the Mendelian colour pattern locus that also segregates in these crosses (controlled by the gene cortex). Small-angle X-ray scattering data show that spacing between longitudinal ridges on the scales, which affects the intensity of the blue reflectance, also varies quantitatively in F2 crosses.

Wing scale ultrastructure underlying convergent and divergent iridescent colours in mimetic Heliconius butterflies.

Iridescence is an optical phenomenon whereby colour changes with the illumination and viewing angle. It can be produced by thin film interference or diffraction. Iridescent optical structures are fairly common in nature, but relatively little is known about their production or evolution. Here we describe the structures responsible for producing blue-green iridescent colour in Heliconius butterflies. Overall the wing scale structures of iridescent and non-iridescent Heliconius species are very similar, both having longitudinal ridges joined by cross-ribs. However, iridescent scales have ridges composed of layered lamellae, which act as multilayer reflectors. Differences in brightness between species can be explained by the extent of overlap of the lamellae and their curvature as well as the density of ridges on the scale. Heliconius are well known for their Müllerian mimicry. We find that iridescent structural colour is not closely matched between co-mimetic species. Differences appear less pronounced in models of Heliconius vision than models of avian vision, suggesting that they are not driven by selection to avoid heterospecific courtship by co-mimics. Ridge profiles appear to evolve relatively slowly, being similar between closely related taxa, while ridge density evolves faster and is similar between distantly related co-mimics.

Antagonistic interactions between an invasive alien and a native coccinellid species may promote coexistence.

Despite the capacity of invasive alien species to alter ecosystems, the mechanisms underlying their impact remain only partly understood. Invasive alien predators, for example, can significantly disrupt recipient communities by consuming prey species or acting as an intraguild predator (IGP). Behavioural interactions are key components of interspecific competition between predators, yet these are often overlooked invasion processes. Here, we show how behavioural, non-lethal IGP interactions might facilitate the establishment success of an invading alien species. We experimentally assessed changes in feeding behaviour (prey preference and consumption rate) of native UK coccinellid species (Adalia bipunctata and Coccinella septempunctata), whose populations are, respectively, declining and stable, when exposed to the invasive intraguild predator, Harmonia axyridis. Using a population dynamics model parameterized with these experimental data, we predicted how intraguild predation, accommodating interspecific behavioural interactions, might impact the abundance of the native and invasive alien species over time. When competing for the same aphid resource, the feeding rate of A. bipunctata significantly increased compared to the feeding in isolation, while the feeding rate of H. axyridis significantly decreased. This suggests that despite significant declines in the UK, A. bipunctata is a superior competitor to the intraguild predator H. axyridis. In contrast, the behaviour of non-declining C. septempunctata was unaltered by the presence of H. axyridis. Our experimental data show the differential behavioural plasticity of competing native and invasive alien predators, but do not explain A. bipunctata declines observed in the UK. Using behavioural plasticity as a parameter in a population dynamic model for A. bipunctata and H. axyridis, coexistence is predicted between the native and invasive alien following an initial period of decline in the native species. We demonstrate how empirical and theoretical techniques can be combined to understand better the processes and consequences of alien species invasions for native biodiversity.

School meals for better nutrition and bone health.

Mandatory new standards for food served in schools in England are being phased in from September 2008. These comprise three sets of standards: food-based, nutrient-based and standards covering food other than lunch. They reflect the Governments concern about poor nutrition and rising trends of obesity among the school-age population and the effect of these on ong- as well as short-term health, including increased risks of diabetes, coronary heart disease and cancers. The standards set minimum requirements for healthier foods and restrict less healthy items served at lunchtimes and other meals and snacks at school, including from vending machines or tuck shops. The standards set specific requirements for nutrients and the frequency, and in some cases the quantity, on which they should be provided. They cover fruit and vegetables (not less than two portions per pupil per day), drinks, deep-fried foods and micronutrients. There are requirements for calcium, as evidence shows that many school-age children and adolescents do not consume adequate amounts for bone health. The standards recommend that a variety of dairy foods, low-fat where possible, should be provided, including milk, cheese, yoghurt, fromage frais and custard. A minimum of 193 mg of calcium must be provided at lunch for all primary school children from September 2008. The standards apply to all Local Authority maintained primary and secondary schools, sixth forms on the premises of secondary schools, schools for children with special educational needs, and pupil referral units. They are not mandatory for independent schools although these will be expected to comply. The standards are derived from the UK nutrient recommendations (Dietary Reference Values). Responsibility for the provision of school meals and for ensuring the standards are met lies with the Local Authorities, or the schools under delegated powers. Monitoring will be by Ofsted, the body responsible for inspecting schools. Implementing the standards will be a major task in which schools, caterers, Local Authorities and health professionals need to work together. School nurses have a part to play, e.g. in starting a School Nutrition Action Group in their schools. The local Healthy Schools Coordinator and dietitians and registered nutritionists are useful sources of information and support, as is the School Food Trust's website www.schoolfoodtrust.org.uk.