Understanding pharmaceutical exposure and the potential for effects in marine biota: A survey of bonefish (Albula vulpes) across the Caribbean Basin.

Most research on pharmaceutical presence in the environment to date has focused on smaller scale assessments of freshwater and riverine systems, relying mainly on assays of water samples, while studies in marine ecosystems and of exposed biota are sparse. This study investigated the pharmaceutical burden in bonefish (Albula vulpes), an important recreational and artisanal fishery, to quantify pharmaceutical exposure throughout the Caribbean Basin. We sampled 74 bonefish from five regions, and analyzed them for 102 pharmaceuticals. We assessed the influence of sampling region on the number of pharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical assemblage, and risk of pharmacological effects. To evaluate the risk of pharmacological effects at the scale of the individual, we proposed a metric based on the human therapeutic plasma concentration (HTPC), comparing measured concentrations to a threshold of 1/3 the HTPC for each pharmaceutical. Every bonefish had at least one pharmaceutical, with an average of 4.9 and a maximum of 16 pharmaceuticals in one individual. At least one pharmaceutical was detected in exceedance of the 1/3 HTPC threshold in 39% of bonefish, with an average of 0.6 and a maximum of 11 pharmaceuticals exceeding in a Key West individual. The number of pharmaceuticals (49 detected in total) differed across regions, but the risk of pharmacological effects did not (23 pharmaceuticals exceeded the 1/3 HTPC threshold). The most common pharmaceuticals were venlafaxine (43 bonefish), atenolol (36), naloxone (27), codeine (27), and trimethoprim (24). Findings suggest that pharmaceutical detections and concentration may be independent, emphasizing the need to monitor risk to biota regardless of exposure diversity, and to focus on risk quantified at the individual level. This study supports the widespread presence of pharmaceuticals in marine systems and shows the utility of applying the HTPC to assess the potential for pharmacological effects, and thus quantify impact of exposure at large spatial scales.

Water temperature affects the biotransformation and accumulation of a psychoactive pharmaceutical and its metabolite in aquatic organisms.

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have been shown to accumulate in aquatic and riparian food-webs. Yet, our understanding of how temperature, a key environmental factor in nature, affects uptake, biotransformation, and the subsequent accumulation of PhACs in aquatic organisms is limited. In this study, we tested to what extent bioconcentration of an anxiolytic drugs (temazepam and oxazepam) is affected by two temperature regimes (10 and 20 °C) and how the temperature affects the temazepam biotransformation and subsequent accumulation of its metabolite (oxazepam) in aquatic organisms. We used European perch (Perca fluviatilis) and dragonfly larvae (Sympetrum sp.), which represent predator and prey species of high ecological relevance in food chains of boreal and temperate aquatic ecosystems. Experimental organisms were exposed to target pharmaceuticals at a range of concentrations (0.2-6 µg L-1) to study concentration dependent differences in bioconcentration and biotransformation. We found that the bioconcentration of temazepam in perch was significantly reduced at higher temperatures. Also, temperature had a strong effect on temazepam biotransformation in the fish, with the production and subsequent accumulation of its metabolite (oxazepam) being two-fold higher at 20 °C compared to 10 °C. In contrast, we found no temperature dependency for temazepam bioconcentration in dragonfly larvae and no detectable biotransformation of the parent compound that would result in measurable concentrations of oxazepam in this organism. Our results highlight that while organisms may share the same aquatic ecosystem, their exposure to PhACs may change differently across temperature gradients in the environment.

Bioconcentration and behavioral effects of four benzodiazepines and their environmentally relevant mixture in wild fish.

We studied the adverse effects of four benzodiazepines frequently measured in European surface waters. We evaluated bioaccumulation potential of oxazepam, bromazepam, temazepam, and clobazam in freshwater fish species - perch (Perca fluviatilis) and we conducted a series of behavioral trials to assess their potential to alter boldness, activity, and social behavior. All selected endpoints were studied individually for each target benzodiazepine and as a mixture of all tested compounds to assess possible combinatory effects. We used a three-dimensional automated tracking system to quantify the fish behavior. The four compounds bioconcentrated differently in fish muscle (temazepam > clobazam > oxazepam > bromazepam) at high exposure (9.1, 6.9, 5.7, 8.1 µg L-1, respectively) and low exposure (0.5, 0.5, 0.3, 0.4 µg L-1, respectively) concentrations. A significant amount of oxazepam was also measured in fish exposed to temazepam, most likely because of the metabolic transformation of temazepam within the fish. Bromazepam, temazepam, and clobazam significantly affected fish behavior at high concentration, while no statistically significant changes were registered for oxazepam. The studied benzodiazepines affected behavior in combination, because the mixture treatment significantly changed several important behavioral traits even at low concentration, while no single compound exposure had such an effect at that dose. Based on our results, we conclude that effects of pharmaceuticals on aquatic environments could be underestimated if risk assessments only rely on the evaluation of single compounds. More studies focused on the combinatory effects of environmentally relevant mixtures of pharmaceuticals are necessary to fill the gaps in this knowledge.

Fish on steroids: Temperature-dependent effects of 17ß-trenbolone on predator escape, boldness, and exploratory behaviors.

Hormonal growth promoters (HGPs), widely used in beef cattle production globally, make their way into the environment as agricultural effluent-with potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems. One HPG of particular concern is 17ß-trenbolone, which is persistent in freshwater habitats and can affect the development, morphology and reproductive behaviors of aquatic organisms. Despite this, few studies have investigated impacts of 17ß-trenbolone on non-reproductive behaviors linked to growth and survival, like boldness and predator avoidance. None consider the interaction between 17ß-trenbolone and other environmental stressors, such as temperature, although environmental challenges confronting animals in the wild seldom, if ever, occur in isolation. Accordingly, this study aimed to test the interactive effects of trenbolone and temperature on organismal behavior. To do this, eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) were subjected to an environmentally-relevant concentration of 17ß-trenbolone (average measured concentration 3.0 ±â€¯0.2 ng/L) or freshwater (i.e. control) for 21 days under one of two temperatures (20 and 30 °C), after which the predator escape, boldness and exploration behavior of fish were tested. Predator escape behavior was assayed by subjecting fish to a simulated predator strike, while boldness and exploration were assessed in a separate maze experiment. We found that trenbolone exposure increased boldness behavior. Interestingly, some behavioral effects of trenbolone depended on temperature, sex, or both. Specifically, significant effects of trenbolone on male predator escape behavior were only noted at 30 °C, with males becoming less reactive to the simulated threat. Further, in the maze experiment, trenbolone-exposed fish explored the maze faster than control fish, but only at 20 °C. We conclude that field detected concentrations of 17ß-trenbolone can impact ecologically important behaviors of fish, and such effects can be temperature dependent. Such findings underscore the importance of considering the potentially interactive effects of other environmental stressors when investigating behavioral effects of environmental contaminants.

No evidence of increased growth or mortality in fish exposed to oxazepam in semi-natural ecosystems.

An increasing number of short-term laboratory studies on fish reports behavioral effects from exposure to aquatic contaminants or raised carbon dioxide levels affecting the GABAA receptor. However, how such GABAergic behavioral modifications (GBMs) impact populations in more complex natural systems is not known. In this study, we induced GBMs in European perch (Perca fluviatilis) via exposure to a GABA agonist (oxazepam) and followed the effects on growth and survival over one summer (70days) in replicated pond ecosystems. We hypothesized that anticipated GBMs, expressed as anti-anxiety like behaviors (higher activity and boldness levels), that increase feeding rates in laboratory assays, would; i) increase growth and ii) increase mortality from predation. To test our hypotheses, 480 PIT tagged perch of known individual weights, and 12 predators (northern pike, Esox lucius) were evenly distributed in 12 ponds; six control (no oxazepam) and six spiked (15.5±4µgl-1 oxazepam [mean±1S.E.]) ponds. Contrary to our hypotheses, even though perch grew on average 16% more when exposed to oxazepam, we found no significant difference between exposed and control fish in growth (exposed: 3.9±1.2g, control: 2.9±1g [mean±1S.E.], respectively) or mortality (exposed: 26.5±1.8individuals pond-1, control: 24.5±2.6individuals pond-1, respectively). In addition, we show that reduced prey capture efficiency in exposed pike may explain the lack of significant differences in predation. Hence, our results suggest that GBMs, which in laboratory studies impact fish behavior, and subsequently also feeding rates, do not seem to generate strong effects on growth and predation-risk in more complex and resource limited natural environments.

Bioaccumulation of five pharmaceuticals at multiple trophic levels in an aquatic food web - Insights from a field experiment.

Pharmaceuticals derived from manufacturing and human consumption contaminate surface waters worldwide. To what extent such pharmaceutical contamination accumulates and disperses over time in different compartments of aquatic food webs is not well known. In this study we assess to what extent five pharmaceuticals (diphenhydramine, oxazepam, trimethoprim, diclofenac, and hydroxyzine) are taken up by fish (European perch) and four aquatic invertebrate taxa (damselfly larvae, mayfly larvae, waterlouse, and ramshorn snail), by tracing their bioconcentrations over several months in a semi-natural large-scale (pond) system. The results suggest both significant differences among drugs in their capacity to bioaccumulate and differences among species in uptake. While no support for in situ uptake of diclofenac and trimethoprim was found, oxazepam, diphenhydramine, and hydroxyzine were detected in all analyzed species. Here, the highest bioaccumulation factor (tissue:water ratio) was found for hydroxyzine. In the food web, the highest concentrations were found in the benthic species ramshorn snail and waterlouse, indicating that bottom-living organism at lower trophic positions are the prime receivers of the pharmaceuticals. In general, concentrations in the biota decreased over time in response to decreasing water concentrations. However, two interesting exceptions to this trend were noted. First, mayfly larvae (primarily grazers) showed peak concentrations (a fourfold increase) of oxazepam, diphenhydramine, and hydroxyzine about 30days after initial addition of pharmaceuticals. Second, perch (top-predator) showed an increase in concentrations of oxazepam throughout the study period. Our results show that drugs can remain bioavailable for aquatic organism for long time periods (weeks to months) and even re-enter the food web at a later time. As such, for an understanding of accumulation and dispersion of pharmaceuticals in aquatic food webs, detailed ecological knowledge is required.

Long-Term Persistence of an Anxiolytic Drug (Oxazepam) in a Large Freshwater Lake.

Production and human consumption of pharmaceuticals result in contamination of surface waters worldwide. Little is known about the long-term (i.e., over decades) fate of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems. Here, we show that the most prescribed anxiolytic in Sweden (oxazepam) persists in its therapeutic form for several decades after being deposited in a large freshwater lake. By comparing sediment cores collected in 1995 and 2013, we demonstrate that oxazepam inputs from the early 1970s remained in the sediments until sampling in 2013, despite in situ degradation processes and sediment diagenesis. In laboratory and pond experiments, we further reveal that therapeutic forms of oxazepam can persist over several months in cold (5 °C) lake water free from UV light. We conclude that oxazepam can persist in lakes over a time scale much longer than previously realized and that levels can build up in lakes due to both a legacy of past inputs and a growing urban population.

Which set of embryo variables is most predictive for live birth? A prospective study in 6252 single embryo transfers to construct an embryo score for the ranking and selection of embryos.

STUDY QUESTION: Which embryo score variables are most powerful for predicting live birth after single embryo transfer (SET) at the early cleavage stage? SUMMARY ANSWER: This large prospective study of visual embryo scoring variables shows that blastomere number (BL), the proportion of mononucleated blastomeres (NU) and the degree of fragmentation (FR) have independent prognostic power to predict live birth. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Other studies suggest prognostic power, at least univariately and for implantation potential, for all five variables. A previous study from the same centre on double embryo transfers with implantation as the end-point resulted in the integrated morphology cleavage (IMC) score, which incorporates BL, NU and EQ. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE AND DURATION: A prospective cohort study of IVF/ICSI SET on Day 2 (n = 6252) during a 6-year period (2006-2012). The five variables (BL NU, FR, EQ and symmetry of cleavage (SY)) were scored in 3- to 5-step scales and subsequently related to clinical pregnancy and LBR. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: A total of 4304 women undergoing IVF/ICSI in a university-affiliated private fertility clinic were included. Generalized estimating equation models evaluated live birth (yes/no) as primary outcome using the embryo variables as predictors. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals and P-values were presented for each predictor. The C statistic (i.e. area under receiver operating characteristic curve) was calculated for each model. Model calibration was assessed with the Hosmer-Lemeshow test. A shrinkage method was applied to remove bias in c statistics due to over-fitting. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: LBR was 27.1% (1693/6252). BL, NU, FR and EQ were univariately highly significantly associated with LBR. In a multivariate model, BL, NU and FR were independently significant, with c statistic 0.579 (age-adjusted c statistic 0.637). EQ did not retain significance in the multivariate model. Prediction model calibration was good for both pregnancy and live birth. We present a ranking tree with combinations of values of the BL, NU and FR embryo variables for optimal selection of the embryo/s to transfer, providing a revised IMC score. The five embryo variables had similar effects over all age groups. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Limitations of the present study are those inherent for real-time visual scoring, including risks of inter-observer variation and the hazards of fixed time-point scoring procedures in a dynamic process. The study is restricted to Day-2 transfers. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: To our knowledge this is the largest prospective, SET study performed with the explicit aim of constructing an evidence-based embryo score for the ranking and selection of early cleavage stage embryos. In line with previous research, our data suggest that the symmetry of cleavage variable may be omitted when scoring embryos in the early cleavage stage. We suggest that, following validation in other populations, the revised IMC score may be used when international standards for embryo scoring are discussed. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST: Carl von Linné Clinic, Uppsala and the Department of Women's and Children's Health and the Family Planning Fund in Uppsala, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden financed this study. There are no competing interests to declare.

Antihistamines and aquatic insects: bioconcentration and impacts on behavior in damselfly larvae (Zygoptera).

Because aquatic insects use histamines as neurotransmitters, adverse impacts on aquatic insects living in aquatic environments that receive antihistamines with wastewater effluent are plausible. In this study, we exposed damselfly larvae to low concentrations of two commonly used antihistamines (Hydroxyzine and Fexofenadine, 360 ± 42 and 2,200 ± 43 ng l(-1), respectively), and recorded damselfly larvae behavior before and after exposure. Further, after the second set of behavioral assays was performed, we quantified bioconcentration of the antihistamines in the damselfly bodies. Our results showed significant changes in damselfly behavior following antihistamine exposure. After Hydroxyzine exposure, the damselfly larvae became less active, and they showed reduced fleeing response (i.e. increased boldness) after being exposed to Fexofenadine, the latter also being significantly different from the non-exposed (control) individuals. Further, we found high levels of bioconcentration in the damselflies; Hydroxyzine showed an average bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 2000. As such, our results indicate that low concentrations of antihistamines can have sub-lethal effects on aquatic insects manifested as behavioral changes, and that bioconcentration of these substances can be high. Therefore, the need to investigate the impact of emergent aquatic contaminants also on aquatic insects, and on behaviors that are of ecological importance, is further highlighted.

Dilute concentrations of a psychiatric drug alter behavior of fish from natural populations.

Environmental pollution by pharmaceuticals is increasingly recognized as a major threat to aquatic ecosystems worldwide. A variety of pharmaceuticals enter waterways by way of treated wastewater effluents and remain biochemically active in aquatic systems. Several ecotoxicological studies have been done, but generally, little is known about the ecological effects of pharmaceuticals. Here we show that a benzodiazepine anxiolytic drug (oxazepam) alters behavior and feeding rate of wild European perch (Perca fluviatilis) at concentrations encountered in effluent-influenced surface waters. Individuals exposed to water with dilute drug concentrations (1.8 micrograms liter(-1)) exhibited increased activity, reduced sociality, and higher feeding rate. As such, our results show that anxiolytic drugs in surface waters alter animal behaviors that are known to have ecological and evolutionary consequences.

Behavioural syndromes in fishes: a review with implications for ecology and fisheries management.

This review examines the contribution of research on fishes to the growing field of behavioural syndromes. Current knowledge of behavioural syndromes in fishes is reviewed with respect to five main axes of animal personality: (1) shyness-boldness, (2) exploration-avoidance, (3) activity, (4) aggressiveness and (5) sociability. Compared with other taxa, research on fishes has played a leading role in describing the shy-bold personality axis and has made innovative contributions to the study of the sociability dimension by incorporating social network theory. Fishes are virtually the only major taxon in which behavioural correlations have been compared between populations. This research has guided the field in examining how variation in selection regime may shape personality. Recent research on fishes has also made important strides in understanding genetic and neuroendocrine bases for behavioural syndromes using approaches involving artificial selection, genetic mapping, candidate gene and functional genomics. This work has illustrated consistent individual variation in highly complex neuroendocrine and gene expression pathways. In contrast, relatively little work on fishes has examined the ontogenetic stability of behavioural syndromes or their fitness consequences. Finally, adopting a behavioural syndrome framework in fisheries management issues including artificial propagation, habitat restoration and invasive species, may promote restoration success. Few studies, however, have examined the ecological relevance of behavioural syndromes in the field. Knowledge of how behavioural syndromes play out in the wild will be crucial to incorporating such a framework into management practices.

Personality-dependent dispersal: characterization, ontogeny and consequences for spatially structured populations.

Dispersal is one of the most fundamental components of ecology, and affects processes as diverse as population growth, metapopulation dynamics, gene flow and adaptation. Although the act of moving from one habitat to another entails major costs to the disperser, empirical and theoretical studies suggest that these costs can be reduced by having morphological, physiological or behavioural specializations for dispersal. A few recent studies on different systems showed that individuals exhibit personality-dependent dispersal, meaning that dispersal tendency is associated with boldness, sociability or aggressiveness. Indeed, in several species, dispersers not only develop behavioural differences at the onset of dispersal, but display these behavioural characteristics through their life cycle. While personality-dependent dispersal has been demonstrated in only a few species, we believe that it is a widespread phenomenon with important ecological consequences. Here, we review the evidence for behavioural differences between dispersers and residents, to what extent they constitute personalities. We also examine how a link between personality traits and dispersal behaviours can be produced and how personality-dependent dispersal affects the dynamics of metapopulations and biological invasions. Finally, we suggest future research directions for population biologists, behavioural ecologists and conservation biologists such as how the direction and the strength of the relationship between personality traits and dispersal vary with ecological contexts.

Therapy of human non-small-cell lung carcinoma using antibody targeting of a modified superantigen.

Superantigens activate T-cells by linking the T-cell receptor to MHC class II on antigen-presenting cells, and novel reactivity can be introduced by fusing the superantigen to a targeting molecule. Thus, an antibody-targeted superantigen, which activates T cells to destroy tumour cells, might be used as cancer therapy. A suitable target is the 5T4 oncofetal antigen, which is expressed on many carcinomas. We constructed a fusion protein from a Fab of a monoclonal antibody recognizing the 5T4 antigen, and an engineered superantigen. The recombinant product 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A)bound the 5T4 antigen expressed on the human non-small-cell lung cancer cell line Calu-1 with a Kd of 1.2 nM while the substitution of Asp227 to Ala in the superantigen moiety reduced binding activity to MHC class II. 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A)tumour reactivity was demonstrated in 7/7 NSCLC samples by immunohistochemistry, while normal tissue reactivity was low to moderate. 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A)induced significant T-cell-dependent in vitro killing of sensitive 5T4 bearing Calu-1 cells, with maximum lysis at 10(-10)M, while the capacity to lyse MHC class II expressing cells was approximately 1000 times less effective. Immunotherapy of 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A)against human NSCLC was investigated in SCID mice reconstituted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Mice carrying intreperitoneally growing Calu-1 cells showed significant reduction in tumour mass and number after intravenous therapy with 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A). Thus, 5T4FabV13-SEA(D227A)has highly attractive properties for therapy of human NSCLC.

A3--a novel colon and pancreatic cancer reactive antibody from a primate phage library selected using intact tumour cells.

The identification of novel tumour-associated antigens (TAAs) is pivotal for progression in the fields of tumour immunotherapy and diagnosis. In the present study, we have developed, based on flow cytometric evaluation and use of a mini-library composed of specific antibody clones linked to different antibiotic resistance markers, methods for positive and subtractive selection of phage antibodies employing intact cells as the antigen source. An scFv phage library (2.7 x 10(7)) was constructed from a primate (Macaca fascicularis) immunised with pooled human colon carcinomas. This library was selected for 3 rounds by binding to Colo 205 colon adenocarcinoma cells and proteolytic elution followed by phage amplification. Several antibodies reactive with colon carcinomas and with restricted reactivity to a few epithelial normal tissues were identified by immunohistochemistry. One clone, A3 scFv, recognised an epitope that was homogeneously expressed in 11/11 of colon and 4/4 pancreatic carcinomas studied and in normal tissue restricted to subtypes of epithelia in the gastrointestinal tract. The A3 scFv had an apparent overall affinity approximately 100-fold higher than an A3 Fab, suggesting binding of scFv homodimers. The cell surface density of the A3 epitope, calculated on the basis of Fab binding, was exceptionally high, approaching 3 million per cell. We also demonstrate efficient T-cell-mediated killing of colon cancer cells coated with A3 scFv fused to the low MHC class II binding superantigen mutant SEA(D227A). The identified A3 molecule thus represents a TAA with properties that suggest its use for immunotherapy of colon and pancreatic cancer.

Phage-selected primate antibodies fused to superantigens for immunotherapy of malignant melanoma.

The high-molecular-weight melanoma-associated antigen, HMW-MAA, has been demonstrated to be of potential interest for diagnosis and treatment of malignant melanoma. Murine monoclonal antibodies (mAb) generated in response to different epitopes of this cell-surface molecule efficiently localise to metastatic lesions in patients with disseminated disease. In this work, phage-display-driven selection for melanoma-reactive antibodies generated HMW-MAA specificities capable of targeting bacterial superantigens (SAg) and cytotoxic T cells to melanoma cells. Cynomolgus monkeys were immunised with a crude suspension of metastatic melanoma. A strong serological response towards HMW-MAA demonstrated its role as an immunodominant molecule in the primate. Several clones producing monoclonal scFv antibody fragments that react with HMW-MAA were identified using melanoma cells and tissue sections for phage selection of a recombinant antibody phage library generated from lymph node mRNA. One of these scFv fragments, K305, was transferred and expressed as a Fab-SAg fusion protein and evaluated as the tumour-targeting moiety for superantigen-based immunotherapy. It binds with high affinity to a unique human-specific epitope on the HMW-MAA, and demonstrates more restricted cross-reactivity with normal smooth-muscle cells than previously described murine mAb. The K305 Fab was fused to the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin A (D227A) [SEA(D227A)], which had been mutated to reduce its intrinsic MHC class II binding affinity, and the fusion protein was used to demonstrate redirection of T cell cytotoxicity to melanoma cells in vitro. In mice with severe combined immunodeficiency, carrying human melanoma tumours, engraftment of human lymphoid cells followed by treatment with the K305Fab-SEA(D227A) fusion protein, induced HMW-MAA-specific tumour growth reduction. The phage-selected K305 antibody demonstrated high-affinity binding and selectivity, supporting its use for tumour therapy in conjunction with T-cell-activating superantigens.

Endothelial cells expressing an inflammatory phenotype are lysed by superantigen-targeted cytotoxic T cells.

The objective of this study was to investigate whether the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), which binds to HLA class II and T-cell receptor Vbeta chains, can direct cytotoxic T cells to lyse cytokine-stimulated endothelial cells (EC). In addition, we wanted to determine whether SEA-primed cytotoxic T cells could be targeted to EC surface molecules as a means of a novel cancer immunotherapy. Human umbilical vein EC (HUVEC), dermal microvascular EC (HMVEC), or the EC line EA.hy926 stimulated with gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) displayed upregulated HLA class II and adhesion molecule (CD54 and CD106) expression, respectively. SEA-primed T cells induced a strong cytotoxicity against IFN-gamma- and TNF-alpha-activated EA.hy926 which had been preincubated with SEA. Blocking of CD54 completely abrogated the T-cell attack. SEA-D227A, which has a mutated class II binding site, did not promote any cytotoxicity. A strong lysis was observed when a fusion protein consisting of protein A and SEA-D227A was added together with T cells to TNF-alpha-induced EA.hy926 and HUVEC precoated with monoclonal antibodies (MAb) directed against HLA class I, CD54, or CD106 molecules. Finally, an scFv antibody fragment reactive with an unknown EC antigen was fused with SEA-D227A. Both EA.hy926 and HMVEC were efficiently lysed by scFv-SEA-D227A-triggered cytotoxic T cells. Taken together, superantigen-activated T-cell-dependent EC killing was induced when EC expressed an inflammatory phenotype. Moreover, specific MAb targeting of the superantigen to surface antigens induced EC lysis. Our data suggest that directed T-cell-mediated lysis of unwanted proliferating EC, such as those in the tumor microvasculature, can be clinically useful.

Phage-displayed Fab fragments against anti-human interleukin-2 receptor alpha. Detection of antigen-bound phages with anti-cpIII monoclonal antibodies.

The genes encoding the VHCH1 and VLCL parts of the mouse anti-human IL-2R alpha antibody 7G7B6 were amplified by PCR and the corresponding antibody fragments displayed on the surface of filamentous phages. The expression of Fab fragments was analysed by immunoblotting using HRP-labelled goat anti-mouse Ig antisera. By traditional hybridoma technology, splenocytes from Balb/c mice, immunized with native phage particles, were fused with P3X63-Ag8.653 myeloma cells in order to yield monoclonal antibodies against filamentous phage proteins. The obtained monoclonal antibody IF8 (mu/kappa) recognized the minor coat protein III as a 65-70 kDa protein band by immunoblotting, whereas the monoclonal antibody IVC8 (mu/kappa), in addition to cpIII, recognized a protein with an approximate molecular weight of 38-43 kDa. Both antibodies were employed to determine the binding specificity of the phage-displayed anti-human IL-2R alpha Fab fragments in an ELISA using recombinant baculovirus-expressed human IL-2R alpha proteins as antigens.

Allogeneic heart transplantation activates alloreactive NK cells.

The ability of natural killer (NK) cells to recognize and reject transplants has so far been shown in hematopoietic grafts only. This study was designed to ascertain whether NK cells may also be involved in the rejection of transplanted organs. In most rat strain combinations, immunization with allogeneic cells induces a T cell response with cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. We have previously found one exception to this. In contrast to Wistar Furth rats (WF, RT1u), which manifest allospecific CTL activation in response to immunization with Brown Norway (BN, RT1n) cells, BN rats immunized with repeated intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of allogeneic WF spleen cells manifest activation of alloreactive NK effector cells. The alloreactive NK cells were of the TCR-, CD3-, CD8+, and NKR-P1 intermediate phenotype and killed target cells with alloselectivity. In this study we used a heart transplantation model to study the rejection response of BN rats receiving WF grafts. NK cell infiltration was greater in WF hearts transplanted to BN recipients than in BN hearts transplanted to WF recipients. Furthermore, the extent of T cell infiltration was less in BN recipients. In WF rats transplanted with allogeneic BN hearts, CTL were activated in response to i.p. challenge with allogeneic BN cells, whereas BN rats transplanted with allogeneic WF hearts and i.p. challenged with allogeneic WF cells, manifested activation of alloreactive NK cells but no measurable activation of classic CTL. The alloreactive NK cells killed their allogeneic targets with specificity and with potency comparable to that of CTL. Furthermore, WF grafts were rejected in BN recipients as efficiently as were BN grafts in WF recipients. These results not only show cardiac allografts to be able to activate alloreactive NK cells, but also suggest that NK cells may be involved in the rejection of solid organ transplants and function as classic CTL in certain donor-recipient combinations.

Efficient selection of scFv antibody phage by adsorption to in situ expressed antigens in tissue sections.

The present report describes the development and application of an efficient method for the direct adsorption/selection of antibody phage using antigens expressed in situ in cryostat tissue sections. In a model system, scFv phage directed towards an epitope on the GA733-2 epithelial glycoprotein expressed in colorectal carcinoma tissue could be specifically enriched up to 1500 fold in single-pass experiments and a million fold after three rounds of selection. Enrichment efficacy was directly proportional to the fraction of antigen positive area over the total area. Sufficient enrichment was achieved at an area fraction of less than four percent, thereby permitting the selection of antibodies to sub-populations of cells or to tissue sub-structures. The general usefulness of the method was demonstrated when a combinatorial scFv antibody phage library derived from melanoma immunized non-human primates was selected in tissue sections of metastatic melanoma. Individual scFv antibodies from enriched phage populations demonstrated different binding specificities, reflected in extracellular and cellular tissue staining patterns which included tumor cell surface reactivity. This method should be particularly useful for the identification of antigens which are only expressed during specific in vivo conditions, and overcomes a major limitation of currently used selection protocols.

Changes in lipophosphoglycan and gene expression associated with the development of Leishmania major in Phlebotomus papatasi.

Stage-specific molecular and morphogenic markers were used to follow the kinetics of appearance, number, and position of metacyclic promastigotes developing during the course of L. major infection in a natural vector, Phlebotomus papatasi. Expression of surface lipophosphoglycan (LPG) on transformed promastigotes was delayed until the appearance of nectomonad forms on day 3, and continued to be abundantly expressed by all promastigotes thereafter. An epitope associate with arabinose substitution of LPG side-chain oligosaccharides, identified by its differential expression by metacyclics in vitro, was detected on the surface of a low proportion of midgut promastigotes beginning on day 5, and on up to 60% of promastigotes on days 10 and 15. In contrast 100% of the parasites egested from the mouthparts during forced feeding of 15 day infected flies stained strongly for this epitope. At each time-point, the surface expression of the modified LPG was restricted to morphologically distinguished metacyclic forms. Ultrastructural study of the metacyclic surface revealed an approximate 2-fold increase in the thickness of the surface coat compared to nectomonad forms, suggesting elongation of LPG as occurs during metacyclogenesis in vitro. A metacyclic-associated transcript (MAT-1), another marker identified by its differential expression in vitro, also showed selective expression by promastigotes in the fly, and was used in in situ hybridization studies to demonstrate the positioning of metacyclics in the anterior gut.