The Impact of a Clinical Pharmacist Practitioner on Perioperative Pain Management for Orthopedic Surgeries.

The objective of this quality improvement (QI) project was to assess the impact of an evidence based clinical pharmacist practitioner (CPP) model applied to perioperative pain management by integrating a CPP into the perioperative orthopedic surgery clinical pathway. Secondary objective was to assess the effect of CPP pain management service on surgical team satisfaction. This QI project expanded CPP pain management services for patients who were scheduled for an orthopedic surgery. Surgical provider satisfaction of CPP pain management services was assessed through a provider survey. Pain management recommendations by the Pain CPP were implemented 61% (n = 23/38) of the time by the orthopedic surgeon. The impact of the Pain CPP on perioperative pain management was demonstrated by improvement in the Clinically Aligned Pain Assessment Tool, which was similar in patients where CPP recommendations were accepted compared to surgeon only recommended regimens (p = 0.048). Five orthopedic surgical providers responded to our satisfaction survey, 80% (n = 4/5) strongly agree that a pain management CPP should become a permanent member of the care team. Through an evidence-based CPP model we observed a reduction in quantity of opioid prescribed and morphine equivalent daily dose utilized in patients who underwent an orthopedic surgery.

Liver transplant outcomes using late allocation grafts.

Post-cross clamp late allocation (LA) liver allografts are at increased risk for discard for many reasons including logistical complexity. Nearest neighbor propensity score matching was used to match 2 standard allocation (SA) offers to every 1 LA liver offer performed at our center between 2015 and 2021. Propensity scores were based on a logistic regression model including recipient age, recipient sex, graft type (donation after circulatory death vs. donation after brain death), Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD), and DRI score. During this time, 101 liver transplants (LT) were performed at our center using LA offers. In comparing LA and SA offers, there were no differences in recipient characteristics including indication for transplant ( p = 0.29), presence of PVT ( p = 0.19), TIPS ( p = 0.83), and HCC status ( p = 0.24). LA grafts came from younger donors (mean age 43.6 vs. 48.9 y, p = 0.009) and were more likely to come from regional or national Organ Procurement Organizations (OPOs) ( p < 0.001). Cold ischemia time was longer for LA grafts (median 8.5 vs 6.3 h, p < 0.001). Following LT, there were no differences between the 2 groups in intensive care unit ( p = 0.22) and hospital ( p = 0.49) lengths of stay, need for endoscopic interventions ( p = 0.55), or biliary strictures ( p = 0.21). Patient (HR 1.0, 95% CI, 0.47-2.15, p = 0.99) and graft (HR 1.23, 95% CI, 0.43-3.50, p = 0.70) survival did not vary between the LA and SA cohorts. One-year LA and SA patient survival was 95.1% and 95.0%; 1-year graft survival was 93.1% and 92.1%, respectively. Despite the additional logistical complexity and longer cold ischemia time, LT outcomes utilizing LA grafts are similar to those allocated by means of SA. Improving allocation policies specific to LA offers, as well as the sharing of best practices between transplant centers and OPOs, are opportunities to further help minimize unnecessary discards.

DEA-registered clinical pharmacist practitioners: Progressing practice to increase patient care access.

PURPOSE: This descriptive review aims to describe the impact of controlled substance prescriptive authority (CSPA) among Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)-registered clinical pharmacist practitioners (pharmacists) within the Veterans Health Administration (VA). The practice perspectives of pharmacists with CSPA are also reviewed. A 3-part methodology included identification and query of DEA-registered pharmacists, practice impact data analysis, and time and motion prescribing analysis. SUMMARY: Between quarter 1 of fiscal year 2018 and quarter 2 of fiscal year 2022, the number of DEA-registered pharmacists in the VA grew by 314%, from 21 to 87 pharmacists. Pharmacists in pain management and mental health reported benefits of CSPA, with the most common being practice autonomy (93%), increased efficiency (92%), and reduced burden on other prescribers (89%). Initial challenges to pharmacists obtaining DEA registration included a lack of incentive (46%) and concern about increased liability (37%). A time and motion analysis demonstrated that pharmacists with CSPA saved a median of 12 minutes for prescription writing compared to those without CSPA. CONCLUSION: There is an opportunity for DEA-registered pharmacists to meet patient care needs to fill gaps in care from physician shortages, improve health equity, and provide quality healthcare for vulnerable, underserved populations, especially in areas where controlled substance prescribing is common. To fully optimize the role of the pharmacist, it is imperative that state practice acts be expanded to include pharmacist DEA authority as part of collaborative practice and that fair and equitable payment models be established for pharmacist comprehensive medication management.

Reassessing Geographic, Logistical, and Cold Ischemia Cutoffs in Liver Transplantation.

INTRODUCTION: Liver acceptance patterns vary significantly between transplant centers. Data pertaining to outcomes of livers declined by local and regional centers and allocated nationally remains limited. PROJECT AIM: The objective was to compare post-liver transplant outcomes between liver allografts transplanted as a result of national and local-regional allocation. DESIGN: This was a retrospective evaluation of 109 nationally allocated liver allografts used for transplant by a single center. Outcomes of nationally allocated grafts were compared to standard allocation grafts (N = 505) during the same period. RESULTS: Recipients of nationally allocated grafts had lower model for end stage liver disease scores (17 vs 22, P = .001). Nationally allocated grafts were more likely to be post-cross clamp offers (29.4% vs 13.4%, P = .001) and have longer cold ischemia times (median hours 7.8 vs 5.5, P = .001). Early allograft dysfunction was common (54.1% vs 52.5%, P = .75) and did not impact hospital length of stay (median 5 vs 6 days, P = .89). There were no differences in biliary complications (P = .11). There were no differences in patient (P = .88) or graft survival (P = .35). In a multivariate model, after accounting for differences in cold ischemia time and posttransplant biliary complications, nationally allocated grafts were not associated with increased risk for graft loss (HR 0.9, 95% CI 0.4-1.8). Abnormal liver biopsy findings (33.0%) followed by donor donation after circulatory death status (22.9%) were the most common reasons for decline by local-regional centers. CONCLUSION: Despite longer cold ischemia times, patient and graft survival outcomes remain excellent and comparable to those seen from standard allocation grafts.

Expanding Liver Transplant Opportunities in Older Patients With Nonconventional Grafts.

INTRODUCTION: Broader use of donation after circulatory death (DCD) and nonconventional grafts for liver transplant helps reduce disparities in organ availability. Limited data, however, exists on outcomes specific to nonconventional graft utilization in older patients. As such, this study aimed to investigate outcomes specific to conventional and nonconventional graft utilization in recipients > 70 y of age. METHODS: 1-to-3 matching based on recipient sex, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score, and donor type was performed on patients ≥70 and <70 y of age who underwent liver transplant alone at Mayo Clinic Arizona between 2015 and 2020. Primary outcomes were posttransplant patient and liver allograft survival for recipients greater than or less than 70 y of age. Secondary outcomes included grafts utilization patterns, hospital length of stay, need for reoperation, biliary complications and disposition at time of hospital discharge. RESULTS: In this cohort, 36.1% of grafts came from DCD donors, 17.4% were postcross clamp offers, and 20.8% were nationally allocated. Median recipient ages were 59 and 71 y (P < 0.01). Recipients had similar Intensive care unit (P = 0.82) and hospital (P = 0.14) lengths of stay, and there were no differences in patient (P = 0.68) or graft (P = 0.38) survival. When comparing donation after brain death and DCD grafts in those >70 y, there were no differences in patient (P = 0.89) or graft (P = 0.71) survival. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent outcomes can be achieved in older recipients, even with use of nonconventional grafts. Expanded use of nonconventional grafts can help facilitate transplant opportunities in older patients.

Impact of Clinical Pharmacist Practitioner-Driven High Opioid Dose Reevaluation in Veterans with Chronic Non-Cancer Pain.

Veterans Health Administration implemented the Opioid Safety Initiative (OSI) in 2013 to promote safe/rational opioid prescribing. West Palm Beach VA Healthcare System (WPBVAHCS) has been an outlier for the percentage of Veterans with chronic non-cancer pain receiving ≥90 mg Morphine Equivalent Daily Dosing (MEDD) in Veterans Integrated Service Networks (VISN) 8 since the 2016 fiscal year. The purpose was to determine the utility of a Pain Clinical Pharmacist Practitioner (CPP) identifying, reviewing, and approaching Veterans utilizing high-dose opioids for dose reevaluation and the impact on OSI metric post-opioid reevaluation. Pain CPP opioid education resulted in 28% (11/39) of Veterans undergoing an average 17.7 mg MEDD opioid dose reduction. For Veterans evaluated by Pain CPP, 83% (15/18) reported no change or improvement in average pain and PEG score. Pain CPP's implemented 48 interventions outside of opioid dose reduction, the most common related to naloxone. No documented opioid overdose events, hospitalizations for uncontrolled pain or mental health, suicide attempts or pain-related crisis interventions were reported. Pain CPP's are equipped to provide opioid education, address risk mitigation strategies, reassess pain regimens, and refer for non-pharmacologic modalities. Utilization of Pain CPP resources helps improve OSI metrics while providing safe comprehensive medication management (CMM) for chronic pain.

Decreasing Significance of Early Allograft Dysfunction with Rising Use of Nonconventional Donors.

Background and Objectives: Early allograft dysfunction (EAD) is considered a surrogate marker for adverse post-liver transplant (LT) outcomes. With the increasing use of nonconventional donors, EAD has become a more frequent occurrence. Given this background, we aimed to assess the prevalence and impact of EAD in an updated cohort inclusive of both conventional and nonconventional liver allografts. Materials and Methods: Perioperative and one-year outcomes were assessed for a total of 611 LT recipients with and without EAD from Mayo Clinic Arizona. EAD was defined as the presence of one or more of the following: bilirubin > 10 mg/dL on day 7, INR > 1.6 on day 7, or ALT and/or AST > 2000 IU/L within the first 7 days of LT. Results: Within this cohort, 31.8% of grafts (n = 194) came from donation after circulatory death (DCD) donors, 17.7% (n = 108) were nationally shared, 16.4% (n = 100) were allocated as post-cross clamp, and 8.7% contained moderate steatosis. EAD was observed in 52.2% (n = 321) of grafts in the study cohort (79% in DCD grafts and 40% in DBD grafts). EAD grafts had higher donor risk index (DRI) scores (1.9 vs. 1.6, p < 0.0001), were more likely to come from DCD donors (48% vs. 13.8%, p < 0.0001), were regionally allocated (p = 0.003), and had higher cold ischemia times (median 6.0 vs. 5.5 h, p = 0.001). Primary nonfunction events were rare in both groups (1.3% vs. 0.3%, p = 0.22). Post-LT acute kidney injury occurred at a similar frequency in recipients with and without EAD (43.6% vs. 30.3%, p = 0.41), and there were no differences in ICU (median 2 vs. 1 day, p = 0.60) or hospital (6 vs. 5 days, p = 0.24) length of stay. For DCD grafts, the rate of ischemic cholangiopathy was similar in the two groups (14.9% EAD vs. 17.5% no EAD, p = 0.69). One-year patient survival for grafts with and without EAD was 96.0% and 94.1% (HR 1.2, 95% CI 0.7−1.8; p = 0.54); one-year graft survival was 92.5% and 92.1% (HR 1.0, 95% CI 0.7−1.5; p = 0.88). Conclusions: In this cohort, EAD occurred in 52% of grafts. The occurrence of EAD, however, did not portend inferior outcomes. Compared to those without EAD, recipients with EAD had similar post-operative outcomes, as well as one-year patient and graft survival. EAD should be managed supportively and should not be viewed as a deterrent to utilization of non-ideal grafts.

Donation after circulatory death transplant outcomes using livers recovered by local surgeons.

Donation after circulatory death (DCD) liver transplantation (LT) outcomes have been attributed to multiple variables, including procurement surgeon recovery techniques. Outcomes of 196 DCD LTs at Mayo Clinic Arizona were analyzed based on graft recovery by a surgeon from our center (transplant procurement team [TPT]) versus a local procurement surgeon (non-TPT [NTPT]). A standard recovery technique was used for all TPT livers. The recovery technique used by the NTPT was left to the discretion of that surgeon. A total of 129 (65.8%) grafts were recovered by our TPT, 67 (34.2%) by the NTPT. Recipient age (p = 0.43), Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score (median 17 vs. 18; p = 0.22), and donor warm ischemia time (median 21.0 vs. 21.5; p = 0.86) were similar between the TPT and NTPT groups. NTPT livers had longer cold ischemia times (6.5 vs. 5.0 median hours; p < 0.001). Early allograft dysfunction (80.6% vs. 76.1%; p = 0.42) and primary nonfunction (0.8% vs. 0.0%; p = 0.47) were similar. Ischemic cholangiopathy (IC) treated with endoscopy occurred in 18.6% and 11.9% of TPT and NTPT grafts (p = 0.23). At last follow-up, approximately half of those requiring endoscopy were undergoing a stent-free trial (58.3% TPT; 50.0% NTPT; p = 0.68). IC requiring re-LT in the first year occurred in 0.8% (n = 1) of TPT and 3.0% (n = 2) of NTPT grafts (p = 0.23). There were no differences in patient (hazard ratio [HR], 1.95; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.76-5.03; p = 0.23) or graft (HR, 1.99; 95% CI, 0.98-4.09; p = 0.10) survival rates. Graft survival at 1 year was 91.5% for TPT grafts and 95.5% for NTPT grafts. Excellent outcomes can be achieved using NTPT for the recovery of DCD livers. There may be an opportunity to expand the use of DCD livers in the United States by increasing the use of NTPT.

Fasting-Induced Upregulation of MKP-1 Modulates the Hepatic Response to Feeding.

The liver plays a key role in whole-body, glucose and lipid homeostasis. Nutritional signals in response to fasting and refeeding regulate hepatic lipid synthesis. It is established that activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) in response to overnutrition regulates MAPK-dependent pathways that control lipid metabolism in the liver. However, the regulatory mechanisms and the impact of the actions of MKP-1 in hepatic response to fasting remains unclear. We investigated the effect of fasting on the expression of MKP-1 and the impact on hepatic response to feeding. In this study, we demonstrate that fasting stress induced upregulation of hepatic MKP-1 protein levels with a corresponding downregulation of p38 MAPK and JNK phosphorylation in mouse livers. We found that MKP-1-deficient livers are resistant to fasting-induced hepatic steatosis. Hepatic MKP-1 deficiency impaired fasting-induced changes in the levels of key transcription factors involved in the regulation of fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism including Srebf2 and Srebf1c. Mechanistically, MKP-1 negatively regulates Srebf2 expression by attenuating p38 MAPK pathway, suggesting its contribution to the metabolic effects of MKP-1 deficiency in the fasting liver. These findings support the hypothesis that upregulation of MKP-1 is a physiological relevant response and might be beneficial in hepatic lipid utilization during fasting in the liver. Collectively, these data unravel some of the complexity and tissue specific interaction of MKP-1 action in response to changes in nutritional cues, including fasting and excess nutrients.

Ovarian Cystic Teratoma in Pregnant Women: Conservative Management or Prophylactic Oophorectomy?

Acute abdominal pain in pregnancy is common and the differential diagnosis is vast. Mature cystic teratomas are rarely the cause of adnexal torsion during pregnancy and can be difficult to diagnose. Timely surgical intervention is required to avoid ovarian infarction. We report a 22-year-old patient presenting with sudden right lower abdominal pain. Imaging including bedside Doppler ultrasonography and MRI were negative for signs of acute ovarian torsion. Despite no definitive imaging findings, due to severe pain, we made the decision for diagnostic multi-port laparoscopic examination with possible oophorectomy. The right cystic ovary was noted to be torsed three times around the utero-ovarian ligament. A right oophorectomy was performed. Grossly, cystic teratoma was confirmed with a large amount of hair and sebum, and pathological analysis also confirmed a benign mature teratoma. The patient recovered well and delivered without any complications. Bedside ultrasonography is a highly accessible tool; however, imaging can be uncertain. Despite the rarity of ovarian torsion due to mature teratomas in second- and third-trimester pregnancies, physicians should be aware of the possibility of acute ovarian torsion in a pregnant patient even with uncertain imaging results, especially those with a documented ovarian mass. Early prophylactic surgical intervention preferably with laparoscopy should be pursued for ovarian masses between 5 cm and 10 cm.

COVID-19 and the Response of Transplant Centers: the Global Response with an Emphasis on the Kidney Recipient.

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, vulnerable populations, such as transplant patients, were at greater risk than the regular population. In order to protect these populations, transplant centers enacted new guidelines. We approach this review by looking at how different transplant regions responded to COVID-19 and analyze the unifying themes that have proven invaluable in the subsequent waves. RECENT FINDINGS: We noticed that most elective surgeries including living donor transplant operations were suspended in most countries. The response to deceased donor transplants varied between countries: in some deceased donor transplants continued with modified donor and recipient criteria, while in other countries this surgery was suspended. There was a general trend of decreasing or holding antimetabolites, treating the virus with hydroxychloroquine and/or azithromycin, and converting outpatient clinics to virtual clinics. SUMMARY: We learned how to carefully select donors and recipients, tailor immunosuppressant regiments, and implement telemedicine. The kidney recipient population can be effectively managed in times of crisis with appropriate accommodations and measures. This review can be a model for the transplant community for future pandemics.

Retrospective Review of Perioperative Multimodal Analgesia for Orthopedic Patients in a Veterans Affairs Setting.

OBJECTIVES: To determine adherence of perioperative knee/hip arthroplasties and hip fracture repairs to the American Pain Society (APS) guideline recommendations for perioperative pain control. One secondary objective was to perform an internal quality audit on the use of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols; another secondary objective was to design an evidence-based, multi-modal perioperative quick-order menu (if warranted). DESIGN/PATIENTS: A retrospective quality improvement (QI) review of uncomplicated knee/hip replacement and hip fracture repairs from January 2018 through March 2018. SETTING: West Palm Beach Veterans Affairs Medical Center (WPB VAMC) including acute care, subacute rehabilitation, and outpatient setting. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Analgesic use in the perioperative setting via electronic health record review. RESULTS: Forty-seven patients were retrospectively reviewed. Perioperative multi-modal analgesia was used in 85% of patients. Eighty-seven percent were discharged on multi-modal analgesia. There was a 67% response rate to the internal quality audit on ERAS protocol usage from the orthopedic team. CONCLUSION: A retrospective QI review completed approximately two years after APS guideline publication showed that compliance with these recommendations for multi-modal analgesia (consisting of the use of at least two medication classes) at the WPB VAMC in the postoperative setting for knee/hip arthroplasties and hip fracture repairs was 85%. This indicated potential for improvement in achieving a pharmacologic multimodal and ERAS intervention. The authors developed an evidence-based quick-order menu to further reinforce adherence to the APS perioperative guidelines.

Protective Desmoplasia in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: High Vitamin D Receptor Expression and Collagen Content.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Vitamin D receptor (VDR) has been shown to suppress desmoplasia in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Our aim was to assess the clinical effects of VDR expression and its correlation with collagen content in the desmoplasia of PDAC patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of 127 patients with peritumoral desmoplasia resected for PDAC. VDR expression and collagen content were assessed by immunohistochemistry and correlated with clinical outcome. RESULTS: Patients were classified into those with high and those with low VDR expression. High VDR expression was associated with improved overall survival (OS) in localized disease (N0) (median= 33; 95%CI=26.4-39.6 vs. 18; 15.5-20.5 months, p=0.01). Patients with high vs. low collagen content had improved OS [34, (range=22.3-45.6 months) vs. 17, (range=14.4-19.6 months), p<0.001]. The number of VDR+ cells was the same for patients with either high or low collagen content. CONCLUSION: Protective desmoplasia is associated with increased VDR expression and collagen content.

Implementation and evaluation of an opioid overdose education and naloxone distribution (OEND) program at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center.

BACKGROUND: In recognition of the importance of safe and effective pain management, the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Office of the Under Secretary for Health have encouraged implementation of opioid overdose education and naloxone distribution (OEND) programs at Veterans Affairs Medical Centers (VAMCs). METHODS: An OEND program was developed in August 2015 and implemented in September 2015 at a VAMC which allowed for pharmacist-lead individual and group patient education. An OEND consult service was developed to streamline referrals of patients for naloxone education and distribution. At the conclusion of the class, participants were ordered a naloxone auto-injector or nasal spray kit. To evaluate the utility of this quality-improvement initiative, data was collected from September 2015 until May 2016. Examples of data collected included participant satisfaction with education, risk for accidental overdose, and number of naloxone kits dispensed to participants. RESULTS: Of a total of 243 consults placed, 71 individuals participated in OEND education. A large quantity of consults were discontinued due to patients no-showing education. Sixty-four consult referrals were identified to have a mental health diagnosis. Most participants who received education had a risk for accidental opioid overdose of 14%. Sixty-nine education participants were provided a naloxone kit. Based on the OEND class survey, participants felt that their knowledge of accidental opioid overdose increased and were generally satisfied with the education. CONCLUSION: OEND educated 30% of the Veterans referred into the program via the consult service, the majority of whom were at a relatively low risk for opioid overdose.

Analysis of Inpatient Hospice Pharmacist Interventions Within a Veterans Affairs Medical Center.

Clinical pharmacy interventions have been shown to improve medication therapy, prevent undesirable side effects, and improve patients' clinical outcomes in a number of settings; however, limited data exist to characterize clinical pharmacy specialist (CPS) providers' interventions in an inpatient hospice Veteran Affairs (VA) setting. The primary objective of this quality improvement (QI) project was to quantify the number and types of pharmacy interventions implemented from the Pharmacists Achieve Results with Medications Documentation (PhARMD) tool for inpatient hospice patient encounters in a VA medical center. A total of 453 interventions during 185 patient care encounters were documented by CPS providers between September 1, 2016, and December 31, 2016. These interventions were documented across 32 unique patients, with an average of 14.2 interventions made per patient during this period. CPS providers frequently intervened to optimize pharmacotherapy for the treatment of pain (42.38%), terminal agitation (5.08%), and nausea (3.97%). Additionally, CPS providers played a significant role in the deprescribing of medication by discontinuing drugs no longer indicated (18.3%). These results substantiate the valuable contribution to patient care that the CPS providers make in optimizing symptom management and deprescribing at end-of-life. Future studies are needed to characterize the potential cost savings of CPS provider services in the inpatient hospice setting.

Pilot Inpatient Pain Pharmacist Consult Service at the West Palm Beach VA Medical Center.

An inpatient pain pharmacist consult service may help manage the complex issues associated with medications for patients with pain.

Evaluation of a faecal calprotectin care pathway for use in primary care.

BACKGROUND: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence have recommended faecal calprotectin (FC) testing as an option in adults with lower gastrointestinal symptoms for whom specialist investigations are being considered, if cancer is not suspected and it is used to support a diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or irritable bowel syndrome. York Hospital and Vale of York Clinical Commissioning Group have developed an evidence-based care pathway to support this recommendation for use in primary care. It incorporates a higher FC cut-off value, a 'traffic light' system for risk and a clinical management pathway. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate this care pathway. METHODS: The care pathway was introduced into five primary care practices for a period of six months and the clinical outcomes of patients were evaluated. Negative and positive predictive values (NPV and PPV) were calculated. GP feedback of the care pathway was obtained by means of a web-based survey. Comparator gastroenterology activity in a neighbouring trust was obtained. RESULTS: The care pathway for FC in primary care had a 97% NPV and a 40% PPV. This was better than GP clinical judgement alone and doubled the PPV compared with the standard FC cut-off (250 mcg/g and were diagnosed by 'straight to test' colonoscopy within three weeks. The care pathway was considered helpful by GPs and delivered a higher diagnostic yield after secondary care referral (21%) than the conventional comparator pathway (5%). CONCLUSIONS: A care pathway for the use of FC that incorporates a higher cut-off value, a 'traffic light' system for risk and supports clinical decision making can be achieved safely and effectively. It maintains the balance between a high NPV and an acceptable PPV. A modified care pathway for the use of FC in primary care is proposed.

Exploring the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain: When, How, and for Whom?

This article provides a broad overview regarding intent to initiate and consider ongoing chronic opioid therapy (COT) for treatment of chronic noncancer pain (CNCP). COT should be an individualized decision based on a comprehensive evaluation, assessment, and monitoring. It is imperative that providers discuss various risks and benefits of COT initially and at follow-up visits, and continue appropriate monitoring and follow-up at regular intervals. The decision to initiate or continue opioid therapy is based on clinical judgment; however, it is understood that opioid and other medication therapy represent one piece of the complete treatment plan for patients with CNCP.