Attachment in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. / Przywiazanie u nastolatków z zespolem nadpobudliwosci psychoruchowej i opozycyjno-buntowniczymi zaburzeniami zachowania.

OBJECTIVES: To assess attachment styles among adolescents (13-16 years) with ADHD or ADHD and oppositional defiant disorders (ODD). METHODS: The Parents and Peers Attachment (IPPA) and the Parent Bonding Questionnaire (PBI) were used in three groups of teenagers raised in biological families: (1) ADHD/ODD group (n = 40), (2) ADHD group (n = 40) and (3) K (control) group of teenagers (n = 40) who have not benefited from psychological or psychiatric care in the past or at present. RESULTS: Parental attachment styles in the area of "Trust", "Communication" and "Alienation" (IPPA), and "Care" and "Control" (PBI) in the ADHD/ODD group differ significantly compared to the control group. Teens from the ADHD/ODD group report to have experienced significantly less "Trust" and "Communication" (IPPA), and "Care" (PBI) in relationships with parents and more "Alienation" (IPPA) and "Control" (PBI) than adolescents in the ADHD group. Attachment patterns with peers in both clinical and control groups differ significantly. The ADHD/ODD group is dominated by the anxious-avoidant style of attachment to the mother and father, in the ADHD group, a secure style in relation to the mother and anxious-avoidant in relation to the father. In relations with peers in the ADHD/ODD group and the ADHD group, the anxious-avoidant style dominates. CONCLUSIONS: The attachment style is significantly different in adolescents diagnosed with ADHD and ODD than in adolescents with only ADHD. In the ADHD/ODD group and the ADHD group, unlike in the group of adolescents without a psychiatric diagnosis, insecure attachment styles for parents and peers dominate (mainly anxious-avoidant style).

Factors affecting the length of hospitalization in people diagnosed with anorexia nervosa - study review. / Czynniki wplywajace na dlugosc hospitalizacji u pacjentów z rozpoznaniem jadlowstretu psychicznego ­ przeglad badan.

Anorexia nervosa is a physical and mental health condition with high mortality and long-term history. Its most characteristic symptom is a significant underweight caused and maintained by a patient who is perceived as an obese person and sets a low weight limit. The course of treatment is usually long-term, involving a large group of specialists, and, depending on the patient's condition, outpatient care, day care or - in the event of high weight loss or malnutrition complications - hospitalization for several months is necessary. Currently, there is a tendency to shorten the length of stay in the inpatient ward of patients with AN in favor of other forms of care. The aim of this article is to collect and present the results of a small number of studies on factors affecting the length of hospitalization in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Based on the currently available tests, the body mass index at admission should be considered as a factor significantly affecting the length of hospitalization. However, the discussion remains open and further research in this area is advisable. Clarification of the above issue may provide the basis for a more patient-oriented determination of the duration of hospital treatment. Further research on factors identified in individual studies and their relationships will also be needed.

The functioning of families of teens with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. / Funkcjonowanie rodzin nastolatków z zespolem nadpobudliwosci psychoruchowej i opozycyjno-buntowniczymi zaburzeniami zachowania.

OBJECTIVES: Comparison of the functioning of families of teens (13-16 years) with the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). METHODS: Assessment using the Family Assessment Questionnaire in three groups of adolescents growing up in biological families: (1) ADHD/ODD group (n = 40), (2) ADHD group (n = 40) and (3) group C (control group) adolescents (n = 40) who have not used psychological or psychiatric care in the past or at present. RESULTS: Mothers, fathers and adolescents from the ADHD/ODD group scored significantly lower in all important aspects of family functioning compared to the control group. In the ADHD group, less favorable mother's and father's assessment was shown for all areas of family functioning compared with the control group. Adolescents' assessment in the dimension of "Role performance", "Emotionality", "Affective involvement", and "Control" was also lower. The ADHD/ODD group participants and their parents rated the functioning of the family lower compared with the ADHD group: mothers - in all described areas, teenagers - in most of the described areas except the dimension of "Control", and fathers - in most areas except the dimension of "Emotionality". CONCLUSIONS: The functioning of families of patients with ADHD and ODD, and families of patients with ADHD significantly differs in all or most of the examined dimensions compared with families of people without diagnosis, while the functioning of families of patients with ADHD and oppositional defiant patients can be described as more abnormal than that of families of ADHD patients.

Cognitive impairments in Polish children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection. / Zaburzenia poznawcze u dzieci i mlodziezy z wrodzonym zakazeniem HIV w Polsce.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to assess the presence of cognitive impairments in children and adolescents with vertically transmitted HIV infection and to determine possible relationships with clinical and socio-demographic variables. METHODS: Fifty children with perinatal HIV infection aged 6-18 years were included in the experimental group (PHIV+). Two sex- and age-matched groups were recruited as reference groups: (1) a PHEU group that included 24 healthy children perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected, and (2) an HIV-nA group that included 43 healthy children of uninfected parents. CANTAB Research Suite was used to assess cognitive functioning. RESULTS: In comparison with the HIV-nA group, the PHIV+ group scored worse in movement execution, shifting and flexibility of attention, reversal learning and working memory. In comparison with the PHEU group, the PHIV+ group had significantly longer planning time in the memory task. The analysis of results for the 12-18 year-old age group revealed deterioration of cognitive functions in all tests of the PHIV+ children in comparison with the HIV-nA group. A higher logarithm of viral load at the start of the ARV treatment was associated with worse results in the use of feedback, shifting of attention, cognitive flexibility and worse information processing. CONCLUSIONS: Results of the research indicate deterioration of executive functioning in the PHIV+ group associated with longer duration of HIV neuroinfection and severity of infection before treatment.

Morphometric evaluations based on Voxel Based Morphometry on adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. / Badania morfometryczne oparte o pomiar voksela (Voxel Based Morphometry) u nastolatków z zaburzeniami ze spektrum autyzmu.

OBJECTIVES: Goal: to evaluate changes in the grey matter volume using the VBM method in a group of adolescents with ASD, who met the criteria for Asperger's Syndrome. METHODS: Material and methods: Morphometric evaluations based on Voxel Based Morphometry (VBM) were performed on 37 male adolescents aged 12 to 19 (M = 14.3 ± 2.0), with autism spectrum disorders, who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for Asperger's Syndrome and 15 neurotypical adolescents matched by age. Significance was set at p<0.007 without FWE correction and p<0.05 with FWE correction. RESULTS: Results: the decrease in the volume of the grey matter was observed in ASD group including the pre- and postcentral gyrus, the superior and middle frontal gyrus, the inferior and superior parietal lobule, the praecuneus, the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex, the fusiform gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the lingual gyrus, the middle occipital region, the cuneus and the angular gyrus, the regions of calcarine sulcus and the cerebellum. The majority of changes was localized bilaterally. CONCLUSIONS: Conclusions: the decrease in the volume of grey matter observed in ASD group can be related functionally with the characteristics of deficits observed in autism spectrum disorders which highlights the role of abnormal organization of numerous CNS structures in the genesis of symptoms observed in cognitive and behavioural domains.

Semantic decisions in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders - functional magnetic resonance imaging study. / Decyzje semantyczne u nastolatków z zaburzeniami ze spektrum autyzmu - badanie czynnosciowym rezonansem magnetycznym.

OBJECTIVES: Goal: to assess fMRI activation during semantic tasks in adolescents with ASD. METHODS: Material: 44 right-handed male adolescents aged 12-19 (mean 14.3 ± 2.0) - 31 with autism spectrum disorders who met DSM-IV-TR criteria for Asperger's syndrome and 13 neurotypical adolescents matched according to age and handiness. Method: Functional testing (fMRI) was performed during semantic decisions tasks and phonological decisions in three categories of tasks: concrete nouns, verbs with plural meanings, words describing states of mind, as a control condition. Statistical analyzes were performed at the level of p <0.05 with FWE (family-wise error) correction and p <0.001. RESULTS: Results: lower BOLD signal was demonstrated in many brain areas including precuneus, posterior cingulate gyrus, angular gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, regardless of task category and processing method in the ASD group. The smallest differences in semantic processing were found for concrete nouns and the greatest ones for words describing states of mind. CONCLUSIONS: Conclusions: the presence of different activation patterns in the ASD group suggests that far more than just the areas traditionally attributed to language processing, are involved in semantic deficits in ASD.

The role of factors associated with the course of pregnancy and childbirth in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). / Rola czynników zwiazanych z przebiegiem ciazy i porodu w zespole nadpobudliwosci psychoruchowej z deficytem uwagi.

OBJECTIVES: Assessment of the prevalence of risk factors associated with the course of pregnancy and childbirth and the condition of the child after birth in agroup of children and adolescents with ADHD and a control group. METHODS: 205 unrelated children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD and 106 primary and secondary school students aged 7-17. Method. Mothers of children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD, and those from the control group, were asked to provide a medical history in order to obtain data to supplement the Pregnancy and perinatal history questionnaire. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were demonstrated for the incidence rates of factors related to the course of pregnancy and childbirth such as: the occurrence of maternal diseases during pregnancy, especially in the I/II trimester, and other problems during pregnancy; exposure to stress and taking medication during pregnancy; smoking during pregnancy; mother's age at childbirth, i.e., < 25 years or > 35 years; use of pain reducing substances during labor and problems with the child during the delivery;an APGAR score in the range of 5-7 points; the occurrence of neonatal jaundice necessitating treatment, especially replacement transfusion; physical anomalies or other congenital problems in the newborn, as well as adaptive problems necessitating neonatal oxygen administration or placement in an incubator. CONCLUSIONS: Significantly more frequent occurrence of risk factors related to the course of pregnancy, childbirth and the child's condition after birth in the ADHD group may indicate their potential role in the etiology of ADHD.

The Association between Executive Functions and Body Weight/BMI in Children and Adolescents with ADHD.

Despite the increasing body of research on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), the results of the studies assessing the relationship between executive function deficit and the risk of obesity in people with ADHD are incongruent. Our study aimed to assess the relationship between measures of executive functions and body weight and Body Mass Index (BMI) in children and adolescents with ADHD and control subjects. The study group consisted of 58 subjects aged from 8 to 17 years with ADHD. The Control group consisted of 62 healthy age and sex-matched participants from primary and secondary schools. Weight, height, and BMI measurements were standardized. The Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART) and the Attention Network Test (ANT) were used to assess executive functions. Based on the analysis of the correlation and analysis of moderation, we found that subjects with higher weight in the study group presented a lower efficiency of the inhibition processes and gave more impulsive and incorrect answers. The occurrence of impulsive reactions might contribute to the risk of excessive weight in children and adolescents with ADHD.

The Occurrence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder According to Three Different Diagnostic Criteria for Obesity.

Objective: This study aimed to assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the group of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) according to three different diagnostic criteria for obesity. The effect of ADHD treatment on the risk of obesity was controlled. Materials and Methods: The study group consisted of 58 subjects aged from 8 to 17 years with ADHD. Control group consisted of 62 healthy age- and sex-matched children and adolescents. Overweight and obesity were assessed according to International Obesity Task-Force (IOTF), World Health Organization (WHO) and European Childhood Obesity Group (ECOG) criteria. Results: There was a significantly higher incidence of obesity in ADHD group according to WHO (ADHD vs. Control: 17.2% vs. 3.2%, p = 0.01) and IOTF criteria (ADHD vs. Control: 10.3% vs. 1.6%, p = 0.04), but no significant difference according to ECOG criteria. There was significantly higher occurrence of overweight (20.7% vs. 12.8%, p < 0.001), obesity (10.3% vs. 3.5%, p < 0.001), and overweight and obesity (31.0% vs. 16.3%, p < 0.001) in the ADHD group compared to the Polish population. The analysis did not show a statistically significant relationship between the amount of taken psychostimulant and the occurrence of overweight and obesity. Conclusions: The prevalence of overweight and obesity in the group of ADHD children and adolescents varies depending on the choice of diagnostic criteria. At the same time, it is significantly more frequent than in the general population. We suggest that future studies should give a clear rationale for the selection of cutoff points to minimize errors that could confound data analysis and interpretation.

Theory of Mind deficits in childhood mental and neurodevelopmental disorders. / Deficyty Teorii Umyslu w wybranych zaburzeniach psychicznych wieku rozwojowego.

Theory of mind (ToM) is a complex cognitive mechanism which refers to our ability to understand that other people have beliefs, plans, desires, hopes, intentions, and knowledge that may differ from our own mental and emotional states. Theory of mind is critical for social and interpersonal functioning and allows people to make sense of other's behavior. Theinitial aim of theory of mind research was to record normative development in preschool age children. Almost 30 years ago, when researchers discovered that theory of mind is altered in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, they also explored impairments in ToM in different clinical disorders. Research results indicate the presence of ToM deficits in childhood mental and neurodevelopmental disorders, such as: autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome, fetus alcohol syndrome, mood disorders, eating disorders, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. This article reviews significant studies of theory of mind impairments in individual childhood disorders and selected mental disorders.

Assessment of criterion validity of personality disorder diagnosis in adolescents and relations between attachment style and personality disorder diagnosis. / Ocena trafnosci kryterialnej diagnozy zaburzen osobowosci u mlodziezy oraz zwiazków miedzy stylem przywiazania a rozpoznaniem zaburzen osobowosci.

OBJECTIVES: Assessment of criterion validity and temporal stability of personality disorder diagnosis in adolescents and relationships between attachment styles and personality disorder diagnosis. METHODS: 50 adolescents (46 girls and 4 boys, aged 15-17) hospitalized at the department of child and adolescent psychiatry were assessed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II) and the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA). After one year, adolescents meeting the criteria for apersonality disorder (PD) diagnosis were reassessed with the SCID-II. RESULTS: In the first stage of assessment, diagnostic criteriafor different types of personality disorders were met by 41 adolescents (82%) (mean number of criteria = 5.9). Criteria were met most often for borderline personality disorder (BPD) (n = 26; mean number of criteria = 7.9). In the second stage of assessment, the interview was re-administered to 21 (51%) adolescents; the mean number of criteria was = 6.6. A statistically significant relationship between the number of PD diagnostic criteria in assessment one and the number of criteria in assessment two was obtained (r = 0.58; p < 0.01). 82% of the participants with PD were insecurely attached to their mothers. In the borderline group, 83% of the participants reported anxious-avoidant attachment style. CONCLUSIONS: PD traits in adolescence, specifically BPD, are stable across one year.

Weak central coherence - construct conception, development, research methods. / Slaba centralna koherencja ­ rozwój i koncepcja konstruktu, metody badania.

Central coherence allows for integration of different stimuli into a coherent whole. It also enables context-dependent information processing. This term was coined in an effort to arrange multiple observations of cognitive functioning of people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Weak central coherence, which is characteristic of ASD, is understood as adivergent cognitive style with a tendency to process incoming information locally. This allows us to describe central coherence as a continuous trait. Despite manifold research programs, a conclusive conceptualization of the construct is still lacking. The open question is whether weak central coherence constitutes alimited ability to integrate stimuli or rather an increased ability to focus on details. An important postulate concerns the establishment of a standard for measuring central coherence and its individual dimensions. Studies of central coherence outside of ASD context are scarce and deal predominantly with eating disorders. The following work is an overview of the current state of knowledge about central coherence construct and methods of research.

Psychiatric, behavioral and emotional disorders in Polish children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection. / Zaburzenia psychiczne, behawioralne i emocjonalne u dzieci i mlodziezy z wrodzonym zakazeniem HIV w Polsce.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of the study were to evaluate the prevalence of psychiatric, behavioral and emotional disorders in children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection and to establish their possible relationships with clinical and sociodemographic variables. METHODS: 56 children with perinatal HIV infection (PHIV+ group), 24 healthy children perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) and 43 healthy children of uninfected parents (HIV-nA), aged 6-18 years, were assessed. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4-18), completed by parents, and the Youth Self-Report (YSR) were used to assess behavioral and emotional disorders, while the semi-structured diagnostic interview K-SADS-PL was used to assess the symptoms of psychiatric disorders. RESULTS: Higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders was found in the PHIV+ group and the PHEU group compared to the HIV-nAgroup. Anxiety disorders and affective disorders were diagnosed most often. Prevalence of symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders in the PHIV+ group and in the PHEU group was associated with similar sociodemographic variables (male, not living with the biological caregiver, the experience of stressful life events). Psychiatric disorders were noted more often among PHIV+ subjects whose ARV treatment was started after 12 months of age. Positive correlations were observed between the results of some YSR and CBCL/4-18 problem scales and CD4 counts at the time of the study, higher logarithm of viral load at the start of ARV treatment and at the time of HIV diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in PHIV+ group and the PHEU group is higher in comparison with HIV-nAgroup. Amore serious course of HIV infection and its severity before treatment are associated with the severity of internalizing problems.

Comorbidity of bipolar disorder and autism spectrum disorder - review paper. / Wspólwystepowanie choroby afektywnej dwubiegunowej i zaburzen ze spektrum autyzmu ­ przeglad badan.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disorders that can affect up to 2.6% of the population. Most of these people will have at least one other psychiatric disorder, often diagnosed with a delay or not recognized at all. This study describes the epidemiology, diagnostic difficulties and potential treatment of patients with ASD and comorbid bipolar disorder (BD). The prevalence of bipolar disorder in ASD is estimated at 5-8%. The study with the most numerous group included 700,000 children out of which 9,062 fulfilled ASD criteria at 16 - BD was found to be 6 times more prevalent in this group compared to the control group. Many factors affect the diagnosis. Patients with ASD often have limited insight into understanding the complex emotional states and difficulty in expressing them due to their impairment. The symptoms of bipolar disorder are in their case unspecific and differ from those occurring in the general population, which makes it difficult to make proper diagnosis. Despite the lack of research on the group of patients with ASD, psychometric tools designed to evaluate the general population are used to examine patients. This work aims to show the current state of knowledge and highlight areas that require further investigation.

Therapeutic programs aimed at developing the theory of mind in patients with autism spectrum disorders - available methods and their effectiveness. / Programy terapeutyczne ukierunkowane na rozwój teorii umyslu u pacjentów z zaburzeniami ze spektrum autyzmu ­ dostepne metody i ich skutecznosc.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by the presence of deficits in social skills and communication as well as repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. Among the theories explaining the mechanisms of the formation of the above cited symptoms, an important role is attributed to the theory of the mind, or the ability to draw conclusions about the state of mind of other people, assigning mental states to others and interpreting their behaviors. According to guidelines of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence on the therapeutic procedures in autism spectrum disorders, the proceedings include various methods, adjusted to the level of functioning and presented difficulties. In the most widely used behavioral social skills trainings, the goal is to practice behaviors using modelling and role-playing techniques. Less attention is devoted to the issue of social understanding, theory of mind or the cognitive aspects of therapeutic interventions. There are studies demonstrating the possibility of developing competence in the theory of mind in people with ASD, as well as generalizing the acquired skills. The article reviews the literature on the use of therapeutic programs aimed at developing the theory of mind in patients with ASD and their effectiveness. As it seems, these are promising interventions, although they require further assessment.

The change in the intensity of symptoms in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder after "Workshops for Parents of Hyperactive Children". / Zmiana nasilenia objawów zespolu nadpobudliwosci psychoruchowej po zastosowaniu programu "Warsztatów dla rodziców dzieci nadpobudliwych".

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate changes in the intensity of ADHD symptoms and size effects after the completion of the twelve-week "Workshops for Parents of Hyperactive Children". METHODS: Intervention group included parents (N = 199) of children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD, who completed the twelve-week parental training. The reference group included parents (N = 24) of children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD, who received 1-2 standard psychiatric visits within twelve weeks (treatment-as-usual). The following questionnaires were completed by the participants at the beginning and at the end of the training: CBCLand Conners-IOWA-10 (parent's assessment of the child), TRF and Conners-RCTRS-28 (assessment of the child by the teacher/educator), and YSR (in children of 11 years and over). The same diagnostic regime was used in the reference group - the patients were assessed during the first visit and after twelve weeks. RESULTS: The majority of attendees were parents of boys diagnosed with: ADHD mixed type with or without ODD and ADHD predominantly inattentive type. The intervention resulted in significant reduction of inattentive-impulsive-hyperactive and oppositional-defiant symptoms in Conners-IOWA-10 and significant reduction of symptoms in the following CBCL scales: "Social problems", "Attention problems", "Aggressive behavior", "Externalizing behavior", as well as the overall score, as rated by mothers. The improvement was age, diagnosis and pharmacotherapy independent. CONCLUSIONS: The therapeutic program used in our study resulted in small to moderate reduction of symptoms in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder irrespective of subtype, comorbid disorders or pharmacotherapy (if implemented).

Health-related quality of life in Polish children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection - short report.

The aims of the study were to assess health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection and to establish possible relationships with clinical and socio-demographic variables. About 56 children with perinatal HIV infection, aged 6-18 years (PHIV+ group), 24 healthy perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) children, and 43 children HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) were assessed using the PedsQL 4.0. Generic Core. The perceptions of school functioning according to children and social functioning, according to parents, were worse in the PHIV+ group compared to those in the PHEU group. In comparison to the HUU group, PHIV+ children received lower total HRQoL scores in the caregivers' perception. Most of the life-quality indices increased systematically with age in PHIV+ group, whereas opposite trends were present in both control groups. Caregivers of children with a final CDC category C and caregivers of children diagnosed with encephalopathy perceived most domains of their children functioning as more problematic. A more serious course and more severe HIV infection before treatment were associated with worse multidimensional functioning and a worse total HRQoL score. Results highlight the importance of early diagnosis and treatment initiation as having significant implications for the quality of life.

General health, sense of coherence and coping styles in parents participating in Workshops for Parents of Hyperactive Children. / Ogólny stan zdrowia, poczucie koherencji oraz style radzenia sobie ze stresem rodziców uczestniczacych w "Warsztatach dla rodziców dzieci nadpobudliwych".

OBJECTIVES: The assessment of changes in the general health, sense of coherence and stress coping styles in parents of children and adolescents with ADHD, participating in 12-week Workshops for Parents of Hyperactive Children. METHODS: The experimental group included 186 mothers and 139 fathers (parents of 199 children); the reference group included 23 mothers and 19 fathers (parents of 24 children), attending 1-2 standard medical visits within a 12-week period (treatment as usual). Parents from both groups were assessed twice using (1) the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), (2) the Life Orientation Questionnaire (SOC-29), and (3) the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS). RESULTS: (1) The experimental group showed a significant improvement in the severity of somatic symptoms and anxiety/insomnia in mothers and the general well-being of mothers and fathers. We observed the influence of workshops on manageability and reduction of the emotion-oriented coping in mothers; (2) the participation in the workshops was associated with a statistically significant effect (mostly moderate) in relation to general health of mothers, while TAU was mostly associated with a low or insignificant effect. CONCLUSIONS: The assessed form of interventions improves the functioning of parents of children with ADHD.

Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adolescents With ADHD: The Significance of Comorbidities and Pharmacotherapy.

OBJECTIVE: Assessment of the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents with ADHD with emphasis on pharmacological treatment and comorbid disorders. METHOD: We analyzed 408 medical records of patients with ADHD aged 7 to 18. RESULTS: The prevalence of overweight (14.71% vs. 12.83%, χ2 = 3,586.43, p < .001) and obesity (6.37% vs. 3.45%, χ2 = 3,588.19, p < .001) was significantly higher in children with ADHD compared with the population. There was significantly higher incidence of obesity in patients with comorbid diagnosis of adjustment disorder (22.22% vs. 4.42%, χ2 = 5.66, p = .02) and mental retardation (19.05% vs. 4.42%, χ2 = 7.63, p = .005). Pharmacological treatment was associated with a higher incidence of obesity (8.37% vs. 2.76%, χ2 = 4.92, p = .03). CONCLUSION: Standardized body mass index (BMI), prevalence of overweight, and obesity was higher in patients with ADHD compared with the population. Higher incidence of obesity was shown in patients with analyzed comorbidities.

Self-injury - placement in mental disorders classifications, risk factors and primary mechanisms. Review of the literature. / Samouszkodzenia ­ miejsce w klasyfikacjach zaburzen psychicznych, czynniki ryzyka i mechanizmy ksztaltujace. Przeglad badan.

Self-injury is a common phenomenon among adolescents and young adults, however its prevalence in clinical population is estimated at 40-80%, especially in regard to patients during puberty. Symptoms usually appear between 12th and 14th year of age, and their average duration is approx. 2 years. According to accepted sociocultural norms self-injury can be regarded as a normal behavior. Nevertheless, the prevalence of body art phenomenon in Western culture including professional tattooing, piercing, scarification, burning tattoos and other body modification typical for tribal cultures, has forced the need to redefine the boundaries for normative behavior. Introduction of a separate nosological unit of Non-Suicidal Self Injury in the fifth edition of DSM classification proves the validity of discussion, being hold for many years, regarding classification and understanding of the underlying mechanisms of self-harm. The aim of our study was to present the current state of knowledge regarding self-harm, with an emphasis on issues devoted to their placement in newest mental disorders classifications and mechanisms responsible for their development and maintenance. Databases such as: PubMed, EBSCO (medical and psychological resources) and WEB OF SCIENCE (years 1990-2016) have been screened for the following key words: self-injury, self-harm, self-mutilation, suicide, deliberate self-harm, affect regulation, NSSI, DSH, personality disorders, suicide attempt, neurobiology self-harm, DSM-5, adolescent, adults, stress coping styles, self-mutilation - children, adolescents and adults-prevalence. The analysis indicated 110 articles and 3 textbooks. We have used the following criteria: (1) for the articles presenting the latest research on risk factors for self-harm we have used the criterion of the study group number (>30 people) and meta-analyses have been included, (2) for theories explaining the mechanisms of self-harm criterion of empirical review of the assumptions and the number of the published studies that verify the theory has been applied.