The Global Anesthesia Workforce Survey: Updates and Trends in the Anesthesia Workforce.

BACKGROUND: There is a large global deficit of anesthesia providers. In 2016, the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) conducted a survey to count the number of anesthesia providers worldwide. Much work has taken place since then to strengthen the anesthesia health workforce. This study updates the global count of anesthesia providers. METHODS: Between 2021 and 2023, an electronic survey was sent to national professional societies of physician anesthesia providers (PAPs), nurse anesthetists, and other nonphysician anesthesia providers (NPAPs). Data included number of providers and trainees, proportion of females, and limited intensive care unit (ICU) capacity data. Descriptive statistics were calculated by country, World Bank income group, and World Health Organization (WHO) region. Provider density is reported as the number of providers per 100,000 population. RESULTS: Responses were obtained for 172 of 193 United Nations (UN) member countries. The global provider density was 8.8 (PAP 6.6 NPAP 2.3). Seventy-six countries had a PAP density <5, whereas 66 countries had a total provider density <5. PAP density increased everywhere except for high- and low-income countries and the African region. CONCLUSIONS: The overall size of the global anesthesia workforce has increased over time, although some countries have experienced a decrease. Population growth and differences in which provider types that are counted can have an important impact on provider density. More work is needed to define appropriate metrics for measuring changes in density, to describe anesthesia cadres, and to improve workforce data collection processes. Effort to scale up anesthesia provider training must urgently continue.

A Cross-Sectional Survey of Anesthetic Airway Equipment and Airway Management Practices in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Anesthesia-related causes contribute to a significant proportion of perioperative deaths, especially in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). There is evidence that complications related to failed airway management are a significant contributor to perioperative morbidity and mortality. While existing data have highlighted the magnitude of airway management complications in LMICs, there are inadequate data to understand their root causes. This study aimed to pilot an airway management capacity tool that evaluates airway management resources, provider practices, and experiences with difficult airways in an attempt to better understand potential contributing factors to airway management challenges. METHODS: We developed a novel airway management capacity assessment tool through a nonsystematic review of existing literature on anesthesia and airway management in LMICs, internationally recognized difficult airway algorithms, minimum standards for equipment, the safe practice of anesthesia, and the essential medicines and health supplies list of Uganda. We distributed the survey tool during conferences and workshops, to anesthesia care providers from across the spectrum of surgical care facilities in Uganda. The data were analyzed using descriptive methods. RESULTS: Between May 2017 and May 2018, 89 of 93 surveys were returned (17% of anesthesia providers in the country) from all levels of health facilities that provide surgical services in Uganda. Equipment for routine airway management was available to all anesthesia providers surveyed, but with a limited range of sizes. Pediatric airway equipment was always available 54% of the time. There was limited availability of capnography (15%), video laryngoscopes (4%), cricothyroidotomy kits (6%), and fiber-optic bronchoscopes (7%). Twenty-one percent (18/87) of respondents reported experiencing a "can't intubate, can't ventilate" (CICV) scenario in the 12 months preceding the survey, while 63% (54/86) reported experiencing at least 1 CICV during their career. Eighty-five percent (74/87) of respondents reported witnessing a severe airway management complication during their career, with 21% (19/89) witnessing a death as a result of a CICV scenario. CONCLUSIONS: We have developed and implemented an airway management capacity tool that describes airway management practices in Uganda. Using this tool, we have identified significant gaps in access to airway management resources. Gaps identified by the survey, along with advocacy by the Association of Anesthesiologists of Uganda, in partnership with the Ugandan Ministry of Health, have led to some progress in closing these gaps. Expanding the availability of airway management resources further, providing more airway management training, and identifying opportunities to support skilled workforce expansion have the potential to improve perioperative safety in Uganda.

Barriers to Quality Perioperative Care Delivery in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Qualitative Rapid Appraisal Study.

BACKGROUND: Provision of timely, safe, and affordable surgical care is an essential component of any high-quality health system. Increasingly, it is recognized that poor quality of care in the perioperative period (before, during, and after surgery) may contribute to significant excess mortality and morbidity. Therefore, improving access to surgical procedures alone will not address the disparities in surgical outcomes globally until the quality of perioperative care is addressed. We aimed to identify key barriers to quality perioperative care delivery for 3 "Bellwether" procedures (cesarean delivery, emergency laparotomy, and long-bone fracture fixation) in 5 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: Ten hospitals representing secondary and tertiary facilities from 5 LMICs were purposefully selected: 2 upper-middle income (Colombia and South Africa); 2 lower-middle income (Sri Lanka and Tanzania); and 1 lower income (Uganda). We used a rapid appraisal design (pathway mapping, ethnography, and interviews) to map out and explore the complexities of the perioperative pathway and care delivery for the Bellwether procedures. The framework approach was used for data analysis, with triangulation across different data sources to identify barriers in the country and pattern matching to identify common barriers across the 5 LMICs. RESULTS: We developed 25 pathway maps, undertook >30 periods of observation, and held >40 interviews with patients and clinical staff. Although the extent and impact of the barriers varied across the LMIC settings, 4 key common barriers to safe and effective perioperative care were identified: (1) the fragmented nature of the care pathways, (2) the limited human and structural resources available for the provision of care, (3) the direct and indirect costs of care for patients (even in health systems for which care is ostensibly free of charge), and (4) patients' low expectations of care. CONCLUSIONS: We identified key barriers to effective perioperative care in LMICs. Addressing these barriers is important if LMIC health systems are to provide safe, timely, and affordable provision of the Bellwether procedures.

Factors affecting job choice among physician anesthesia providers in Uganda: a survey of income composition, discrete choice experiment, and implications for the decision to work rurally.

BACKGROUND: One of the biggest barriers to accessing safe surgical and anesthetic care is lack of trained providers. Uganda has one of the largest deficits in anesthesia providers in the world, and though they are increasing in number, they remain concentrated in the capital city. Salary is an oft-cited barrier to rural job choice, yet the size and sources of anesthesia provider incomes are unclear, and so the potential income loss from taking a rural job is unknown. Additionally, while salary augmentation is a common policy proposal to increase rural job uptake, the relative importance of non-monetary job factors in job choice is also unknown. METHODS: A survey on income sources and magnitude, and a Discrete Choice Experiment examining the relative importance of monetary and non-monetary factors in job choice, was administered to 37 and 47 physician anesthesiologists in Uganda, between May-June 2019. RESULTS: No providers worked only at government jobs. Providers earned most of their total income from a non-government job (50% of income, 23% of working hours), but worked more hours at their government job (36% of income, and 44% of working hours). Providers felt the most important job attributes were the quality of the facility and scope of practice they could provide, and the presence of a colleague (33% and 32% overall relative importance). These were more important than salary and living conditions (14% and 12% importance). CONCLUSIONS: No providers accepted the salary from a government job alone, which was always augmented by other work. However, few providers worked only nongovernment jobs. Non-monetary incentives are powerful influencers of job preference, and may be leveraged as policy options to attract providers. Salary continues to be an important driver of job choice, and jobs with fewer income generating opportunities (e.g. private work in rural areas) are likely to need salary augmentation to attract providers.

Anesthesia Provider Training and Practice Models: A Survey of Africa.

BACKGROUND: In Africa, most countries have fewer than 1 physician anesthesiologist (PA) per 100,000 population. Nonphysician anesthesia providers (NPAPs) play a large role in the workforce of many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), but little information has been systematically collected to describe existing human resources for anesthesia care models. An understanding of existing PA and NPAP training pathways and roles is needed to inform anesthesia workforce planning, especially for critically underresourced countries. METHODS: Between 2016 and 2018, we conducted electronic, phone, and in-person surveys of anesthesia providers in Africa. The surveys focused on the presence of anesthesia training programs, training program characteristics, and clinical scope of practice after graduation. RESULTS: One hundred thirty-one respondents completed surveys representing data for 51 of 55 countries in Africa. Most countries had both PA and NPAP training programs (57%; mean, 1.6 pathways per country). Thirty distinct training pathways to become an anesthesia provider could be discriminated on the basis of entry qualification, duration, and qualification gained. Of these 30 distinct pathways, 22 (73%) were for NPAPs. Physician and NPAP program durations were a median of 48 and 24 months (ranges: 36-72, 9-48), respectively. Sixty percent of NPAP pathways required a nursing background for entry, and 60% conferred a technical (eg, diploma/license) qualification after training. Physicians and NPAPs were trained to perform most anesthesia tasks independently, though few had subspecialty training (such as regional or cardiac anesthesia). CONCLUSIONS: Despite profound anesthesia provider shortages throughout Africa, most countries have both NPAP and PA training programs. NPAP training pathways, in particular, show significant heterogeneity despite relatively similar scopes of clinical practice for NPAPs after graduation. Such heterogeneity may reflect the varied needs and resources for different settings, though may also suggest lack of consensus on how to train the anesthesia workforce. Lack of consistent terminology to describe the anesthesia workforce is a significant challenge that must be addressed to accelerate workforce research and planning efforts.

Training non-physician anaesthetists in sub-Saharan Africa: a qualitative investigation of providers' perspectives.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the views of non-physician anaesthesia providers (NPAPs) and their colleagues regarding the effectiveness of NPAP training programmes in three contrasting sub-Saharan African countries. DESIGN: This was a qualitative exploratory descriptive study. Semistructured interviews were conducted online, recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically using NVivo. SETTING: Participants' homes or workplaces in Sierra Leone, Somaliland and Uganda. PARTICIPANTS: 15 NPAPs, physician anaesthetists and surgeons working in the countries concerned. RESULTS: Three major themes were identified: (1) discrepancy between urban training and rural practice, (2) prominent development of attitudes outside the curricular set during training, including approaches to learning and clinical responsibility and (3) the importance of interprofessional relationships developed during training for later practice. CONCLUSIONS: Anaesthesia providers in different cadres and very different country contexts in sub-Saharan Africa describe common themes in training which appear to be significant for their later practice. Not all these issues are explicitly planned for in current training programmes, although they are important in the view of providers. Subsequent programme development should consider these themes with a view to enhancing the safety and quality of anaesthesia practice in this context.

Postoperative pain after cesarean section: assessment and management in a tertiary hospital in a low-income country.

BACKGROUND: There is little information about the current management of pain after obstetric surgery at Mulago hospital in Uganda, one of the largest hospitals in Africa with approximately 32,000 deliveries per year. The primary goal of this study was to assess the severity of post cesarean section pain. Secondary objectives were to identify analgesic medications used to control post cesarean section pain and resultant patient satisfaction. METHODS: We prospectively followed 333 women who underwent cesarean section under spinal anesthesia. Subjective assessment of the participants' pain was done using the Visual Analogue Scale (0 to 100) at 0, 6 and 24 h after surgery. Satisfaction with pain control was ascertained at 24 h after surgery using a 2-point scale (yes/no). Participants' charts were reviewed for records of analgesics administered. RESULTS: Pain control medications used in the first 24 h following cesarean section at this hospital included diclofenac only, pethidine only, tramadol only and multiple pain medications. There were mothers who did not receive any analgesic medication. The highest pain scores were reported at 6 h (median: 37; (IQR:37.5). 68% of participants reported they were satisfied with their pain control. CONCLUSION: Adequate management of post-cesarean section pain remains a challenge at Mulago hospital. Greater inter-professional collaboration, self-administered analgesia, scheduled prescription orders and increasing availability of analgesic drugs may contribute to improved treatment of postoperative pain with better pain scores.

Feasibility of Simulation-Based Medical Education in a Low-Income Country: Challenges and Solutions From a 3-year Pilot Program in Uganda.

STATEMENT: Simulation is relatively new in many low-income countries. We describe the challenges encountered, solutions deployed, and the costs incurred while establishing two simulation centers in Uganda. The challenges we experienced included equipment costs, difficulty in procurement, lack of context-appropriate curricula, unreliable power, limited local teaching capacity, and lack of coordination among user groups. Solutions we deployed included improvisation of equipment, customization of low-cost simulation software, creation of context-specific curricula, local administrative support, and creation of a simulation fellowship opportunity for local instructors. Total costs for simulation setups ranged from US $165 to $17,000. For centers in low-income countries trying to establish simulation programs, our experience suggests that careful selection of context-appropriate equipment and curricula, engagement with local and international collaborators, and early emphasis to increase local teaching capacity are essential. Further studies are needed to identify the most cost-effective levels of technological complexity for simulation in similar resource-constrained settings.

Low dose ketamine versus morphine for acute severe vaso occlusive pain in children: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Acute pain episodes associated with sickle cell disease (SCD) are very difficult to manage effectively. Opioid tolerance and side effects have been major roadblocks in our ability to provide these patients with adequate pain relief. Ketamine is cheap, widely safe, readily available drug, with analgesic effects at sub-anesthetic doses and has been used in wide range of surgeries, pediatric burns dressing change and cancer related pain however, literature concerning its use in sickle cell crises is still limited in our setting. This study aimed to establish if 1 mg/kg of intravenous ketamine is non inferior to intravenous morphine 0.1 mg/kg in severe SCD-associated pain. METHODS: We performed an institutional review board-approved randomized, prospective, double-blinded, active-control, non-inferiority trial at the national referral sickle cell center. Children between 7 and 18 years of age with severe painful sickle cell crisis, defined by numerical rating scale score of greater or equal to 7 were enrolled. Patients were consented and randomized to receive, either IV ketamine (LDK) 1 mg/kg or IV morphine (MOR) 0.1 mg/kg as an infusion over 10 min. The primary endpoint is maximal change in Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) pain score. Secondary outcomes were, incidence of adverse effects, optimal time to and duration of action of ketamine and incidence of treatment failures by treatment group. A clinically meaningful difference in validated pain scores was defined as 1.3 units. Assuming both treatments are on average equal, a sample size of 240 patients (120 per group) provided 95% power to demonstrate that IV LDK is non-inferior to IV morphine with a 0.05 level of significance and a 10% non-inferiority margin. All analyses were based on a modified intention to treat. This trial was registered with clinicaltrials.gov NCT02434939. RESULTS: Two hundred and forty patients were enrolled (LDK120, MOR120). Demographic variables and baseline NRS scores (8.9 vs. 9.2) were similar. LDK was comparable to MOR in the maximum change in NRS scores, 66.4% vs. 61.3% (MD 5.5; 95% CI -2.2 to -13.2). Time to achieve maximum reduction in NRS pain scores was at 19.8 min for LDK and 34.1 min for MOR. The average duration of action for LDK was 60 min. MOR had more patients still at maximum effect at 120 min (45.8% vs. 37.5%; RR 1.2; 95% CI 0.9-1.7). LDK patients were 11.3 times more likely to develop side effects, though were transient, anticipated and non-life threatening (37.5% vs. 3.3%). MOR had significantly more treatment failures 40% vs. 28.3% (RR 0.7; 95% CI 0.5-1.03, p=0.07) Vital signs and sedation scores were similar in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous LDK at 1 mg/kg provides comparable analgesic effectiveness as IV MOR in the acute treatment of severe painful sickle cell crisis in children in the day care sickle cell center. However, it is associated with a high incidence of several transient, non-life threatening mild side effects. IMPLICATIONS: Intravenous ketamine at 1 mg/kg can be a reliable alternative to morphine in the management of severe painful sickle cell crisis especially in a resource limited area where morphine is not readily available.

A Novel Multiplayer Screen-Based Simulation Experience for African Learners Improved Confidence in Management of Postpartum Hemorrhage.

INTRODUCTION: Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) remains a global challenge, affecting thirteen million women each year. In addition, PPH is a leading cause of maternal mortality in Asia and Africa. In the U.S.A., care of critically ill patients is often practiced using mannequin-based simulation. Mannequin-based simulation presents challenges in global health, particularly in low- or middle-income countries. We developed a novel multiplayer screen-based simulation in a virtual world enabling the practice of team coordination with PPH. We used this simulation with learners in Mulago, Uganda. We hypothesized that a multiplayer screen-based simulation experience would increase learner confidence in their ability to manage PPH. METHODS: The study design was a simple pre- and a post-intervention survey. Forty-eight interprofessional subjects participated in one of nine 1-h simulation sessions using the PPH software. A fifteen-question self-assessment administered before and after the intervention was designed to probe the areas of learning as defined by Bloom and Krathwohl: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. RESULTS: Combined confidence scores increased significantly overall following the simulation experience and individually in each of the three categories of Bloom's Taxonomy: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. CONCLUSION: We provide preliminary evidence that multiplayer screen-based simulation represents a scalable, distributable form of learning that may be used effectively in global health education and training. Interestingly, despite our intervention being screen-based, our subjects showed improved confidence in their ability to perform psychomotor tasks. Although there is precedent for mental rehearsal improving performance, further research is needed to understand this finding.

Achieving the Recommended Endotracheal Tube Cuff Pressure: A Randomized Control Study Comparing Loss of Resistance Syringe to Pilot Balloon Palpation.

BACKGROUND: Both under- and overinflation of endotracheal tube cuffs can result in significant harm to the patient. The optimal technique for establishing and maintaining safe cuff pressures (20-30 cmH2O) is the cuff pressure manometer, but this is not widely available, especially in resource-limited settings where its use is limited by cost of acquisition and maintenance. Therefore, anesthesia providers commonly rely on subjective methods to estimate safe endotracheal cuff pressure. This study set out to determine the efficacy of the loss of resistance syringe method at estimating endotracheal cuff pressures. METHODS: This was a randomized clinical trial. We enrolled adult patients scheduled to undergo general anesthesia for elective surgery at Mulago Hospital, Uganda. Study participants were randomized to have their endotracheal cuff pressures estimated by either loss of resistance syringe or pilot balloon palpation. The pressures measured were recorded. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-eight patients were analyzed. 66.3% (59/89) of patients in the loss of resistance group had cuff pressures in the recommended range compared with 22.5% (20/89) from the pilot balloon palpation method. This was statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The loss of resistance syringe method was superior to pilot balloon palpation at administering pressures in the recommended range. This method provides a viable option to cuff inflation.