Ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine for the immobilisation of free-living hyenas (Crocuta crocuta).

Free-ranging spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are immobilised for a variety of purposes, including wildlife-human conflict mitigation, research, and veterinary treatment. Combinations of tiletamine-zolazepam (Zoletil) and medetomidine are commonly used for immobilisation of hyenas, however, recovery times are long. In this descriptive study, a total of 20 adult or subadult free-ranging hyenas were immobilised near Skukuza in the Kruger National Park using ketamine, butorphanol, and medetomidine. The goal of the study was to evaluate a suitable dose and measure cardiorespiratory effects of this combination. The quality of induction and recovery were scored using an established scoring system from 1 (excellent) to (poor). Twelve of the 20 hyenas were given an induction score of 1 (excellent), five an induction score of 2 (good), and three an induction score of 3 (fair). Of the animals with induction score = 1, the mean drug dose was 1.17 mg/kg ketamine, 0.25 mg/kg butorphanol and 0.03 mg/kg medetomidine, and the mean induction time and time to handling 6:25 minutes and 9:46 minutes respectively. The mean recovery time (from reversal to standing) was 10:16 min, which is shorter than what has been reported for tiletaminezolazepam- based combinations in hyenas. Most hyenas were bradycardic (< 40 beats per minute) and the mean PaO2 69.5 mmHg. Three hyenas, one with induction score = 2, and two with induction scores = 3 spontaneously recovered at 33, 44 and 56 minutes post approach respectively. Regardless of induction time, all hyenas reached a level of surgical anaesthesia while immobilised. Overall, ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine (KBM) was effective in immobilising hyenas but induction times varied, and animals were bradycardic during immobilisation.

Chemical immobilisation of lions: weighing up drug effectiveness versus clinical effects.

Selection of an effective drug combination to immobilise African lions (Panthera leo) requires balancing immobilisation effectiveness with potential side effects. We compared the immobilisation effectiveness and changes to physiological variables induced by three drug combinations used for free-ranging African lions. The lions (12 animals per drug combination) were immobilised with tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine (TZM), ketamine-medetomidine (KM) or ketamine-butorphanol-medetomidine (KBM). Induction, immobilisation, and recovery were timed, evaluated using a scoring system, and physiological variables were monitored. The drugs used for immobilisation were antagonised with atipamezole and naltrexone. The quality of induction was rated as excellent for all drug combinations and induction times (mean ± SD) did not differ between the groups (10.54 ± 2.67 min for TZM, 10.49 ± 2.63 min for KM, and 11.11 ± 2.91 min for KBM). Immobilisation depth was similar over the immobilisation period in the TZM and KBM groups, and initially light, progressing to deeper in lions administered KM. Heart rate, respiratory rate and peripheral arterial haemoglobin saturation with oxygen were within the expected range for healthy, awake lions in all groups. All lions were severely hypertensive and hyperthermic throughout the immobilisation. Following antagonism of immobilising drugs, lions immobilised with KM and KBM recovered to walking sooner than those immobilised with TZM, at 15.29 ± 10.68 min, 10.88 ± 4.29 min and 29.73 ± 14.46 min, respectively. Only one lion in the KBM group exhibited ataxia during recovery compared to five and four lions in the TZM and KM groups, respectively. All three drug combinations provided smooth inductions and effective immobilisations but resulted in hypertension. KBM had an advantage of allowing for shorter, less ataxic recoveries.

Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium bovis infection in warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in bovine tuberculosis-endemic regions of South Africa.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), has been reported in many species including suids. Wild boar are important maintenance hosts of the infection with other suids, that is domestic and feral pigs, being important spillover hosts in the Eurasian ecosystem and in South Africa, warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) may play a similar role in M. bovis-endemic areas. However, novel diagnostic tests for warthogs are required to investigate the epidemiology of bTB in this species. Recent studies have demonstrated that serological assays are capable of discriminating between M. bovis-infected and uninfected warthogs (Roos et al., ). In this study, an indirect ELISA utilizing M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPD) as a test antigen was used to measure the prevalence and investigate risk factors associated with infection in warthogs from uMhkuze Nature Reserve and the southern region of the Greater Kruger National Park (GKNP). There was a high overall seroprevalence of 38%, with adult warthogs having a higher risk of infection (46%). Seroprevalence also varied by geographic location with warthogs from Marloth Park in the GKNP having the greatest percentage of positive animals (63%). This study indicates that warthogs in M. bovis-endemic areas are at high risk of becoming infected with mycobacteria. Warthogs might present an under-recognized disease threat in multi-species systems. They might also serve as convenient sentinels for M. bovis in endemic areas. These findings highlight the importance of epidemiological studies in wildlife to understand the role each species plays in disease ecology.

Tuberculosis in Rhinoceros: An Underrecognized Threat?

Historical evidence of tuberculosis (TB) affecting primarily captive rhinoceroses dates back almost two centuries. Although the causative Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) species has not been determined in many cases, especially for those that occurred before bacterial culture techniques were available, the spectrum of documented reports illustrates the importance of TB as cause of morbidity and mortality in different rhinoceros species across continents. In more recent years, sporadic suspected or confirmed cases of TB caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) have been reported in semi-free or free-ranging rhinoceroses in South Africa. However, the true risk TB may pose to the health and conservation of rhinoceros populations in the country's large conservation areas where M. bovis is endemic, which is unknown. Underlying the current knowledge gap is the lack of diagnostic tools available to detect infection in living animals. As documented in other wildlife species, TB could establish itself in a rhinoceros population but remain unrecognized for decades with detrimental implications for wildlife conservation at large and should such animals be moved to uninfected areas or facilities. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge regarding TB in rhinoceros including critical gaps that need to be addressed to effectively assess the threat that this disease may present to rhinoceros.

Development of a Gene Expression Assay for the Diagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis Infection in African Lions (Panthera leo).

Mycobacterium bovis infection, the cause of bovine tuberculosis (BTB), is endemic in wildlife in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. In lions, a high infection prevalence and BTB mortalities have been documented in the KNP; however, the ecological consequences of this disease are currently unknown. Sensitive assays for the detection of this infection in this species are therefore required. Blood from M. bovis-exposed, M. bovis-unexposed, M. tuberculosis-exposed and M. bovis-infected lions was incubated in QuantiFERON® -TB Gold (QFT) tubes containing either saline or ESAT-6/CFP-10 peptides. Using qPCR, selected reference genes were evaluated for expression stability in these samples and selected target genes were evaluated as markers of antigen-dependent immune activation. The abundance of monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG/CXCL9) mRNA, measured in relation to that of YWHAZ, was used as a marker of ESAT-6/CFP-10 sensitization. The gene expression assay results were compared between lion groups, and lenient and stringent diagnostic cut-off values were calculated. This CXCL9 gene expression assay combines a highly specific stimulation platform with a sensitive diagnostic marker that allows for discrimination between M. bovis-infected and M. bovis-uninfected lions.

Wildlife tuberculosis in South African conservation areas: implications and challenges.

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, was first diagnosed in African buffalo in South Africa's Kruger National Park in 1990. Over the past 15 years the disease has spread northwards leaving only the most northern buffalo herds unaffected. Evidence suggests that 10 other small and large mammalian species, including large predators, are spillover hosts. Wildlife tuberculosis has also been diagnosed in several adjacent private game reserves and in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, the third largest game reserve in South Africa. The tuberculosis epidemic has a number of implications, for which the full effect of some might only be seen in the long-term. Potential negative long-term effects on the population dynamics of certain social animal species and the direct threat for the survival of endangered species pose particular problems for wildlife conservationists. On the other hand, the risk of spillover infection to neighboring communal cattle raises concerns about human health at the wildlife-livestock-human interface, not only along the western boundary of Kruger National Park, but also with regards to the joint development of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From an economic point of view, wildlife tuberculosis has resulted in national and international trade restrictions for affected species. The lack of diagnostic tools for most species and the absence of an effective vaccine make it currently impossible to contain and control this disease within an infected free-ranging ecosystem. Veterinary researchers and policy-makers have recognized the need to intensify research on this disease and the need to develop tools for control, initially targeting buffalo and lion.

Adverse events following vaccination in premature infants.

UNLABELLED: The aims of this study were to study the frequency, severity and types of adverse reactions following DPT/Hib (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis/Haemophilus influenzae type B conjugate) immunization in very preterm infants and to identify possible risk factors. Case notes of 45 preterm babies vaccinated in the neonatal intensive care unit between January 1993 and December 1998 were studied retrospectively. Birthweight, gestational age, duration of ventilation, oxygen dependency, timing of vaccination, weight, corrected gestation at vaccination and apparent adverse effects were noted. Apparent adverse events were noted in 17 of 45 (37.8%) babies: 9 (20%) had major events, i.e. apnoea, bradycardia or desaturations, and 8 (17.8%) had minor events, i.e. increased oxygen requirements, temperature instability, poor handling and feed intolerance. Babies with major events were significantly younger (p < 0.05), had a lower postmenstrual age (p < 0.05) and weighed less (p < 0.05) at the time of vaccination compared with babies without major events. No differences in the mean birthweight, gestational age, duration of ventilation or oxygen dependency were found between the two groups. Age at vaccination of 70 days or less was significantly associated with increased risk (p < 0.01). Of 27 babies vaccinated at 70 days or less, 9 (33.3%) developed major events compared with none when vaccinated over 70 d. CONCLUSION: Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events are relatively common in preterm babies. Problems were much more common if vaccine is administered at or before 70 d. These babies should therefore be monitored postvaccination. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify whether delaying vaccination offers protection against these adverse events.

Considerations on methodology used in the World Health Organization 2000 Report.

The article analyzes the World Health Organization Report for 2000, with emphasis placed on the methodology used to analyze the indicators utilized to compare and classify the performance of the health systems of the 191 member countries. The Report's contribution was the compromise of monitoring the performance of the health systems of member countries, but because of the inconsistent way it was elaborated, and the utilization of questionable scientific evaluation methodologies, the Report fails to give a clear picture. A criterion-based methodology revision is imposed. The main problems in evidence are the choice of individual indicators of disparity in health that discount the population profile, the inadequate control of the impact of social disparities over the performance of the systems, the evaluation of the responsibility of systems that are only partially articulated to the right of the citizens, the lack of data for a great number of countries, consequently having inconsistent estimations, and the lack of transparency in the methodological procedures in the calculation of some indicators. The article suggests a wide methodological revision of the Report.

Changes in paediatric resuscitation knowledge among doctors.

AIMS: To investigate whether paediatricians have improved their resuscitation knowledge since 1992, and whether those who have attended a paediatric resuscitation course have greater knowledge than those who have not. METHODS: Telephone survey of 94 resident paediatricians admitting emergency cases. Questions on clinical scenarios were asked and adherence to internationally agreed guidelines in answering was determined. RESULTS: There were significantly more correct answers to 9/10 questions in 1999 compared to 1992. The 1999 doctors who had attended a course scored significantly better in 3/10 questions and achieved a higher total score (5.43 versus 4.55). CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge has improved since 1992; this has been over the period in which paediatric resuscitation courses were introduced. In 1999 those who had been on a course were more knowledgeable than those who had not.

An innovative approach for locating and evaluating subsurface pathways for nitrogen loss.

Fundamental watershed-scale processes governing chemical flux to neighboring ecosystems are so poorly understood that effective strategies for mitigating chemical contamination cannot be formulated. Characterization of evapotranspiration, surface runoff, plant uptake, subsurface preferential flow, behavior of the chemicals in neighboring ecosystems, and an understanding of how crop management practices influence these processes are needed. Adequate characterization of subsurface flow has been especially difficult because conventional sampling methods are ineffective for measuring preferential flow of water and solutes. A sampling strategy based on ground-penetrating radar (GPR) mapping of subsurface structures coupled with near real-time soil moisture data, surface topography, remotely sensed imagery, and a geographic information system (GIS) appears to offer a means of accurately identifying subsurface preferential flow pathways. Four small adjacent watersheds draining into a riparian wetland and first-order stream at the USDA-ARS Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD are being studied with this protocol. The spatial location of some preferential flow pathways for chemicals exiting these agricultural watersheds to the neighboring ecosystems have been identified. Confirmation of the pathways is via examination of patterns in yield monitor data and remote sensing imagery.

Changes in respiratory function following the intramuscular administration of etorphine to boer goats (Capra hircus).

The physiological effects on respiratory function of etorphine (M99, Logos Agvet) (30 microg/kg) administered intramuscularly were determined in boer goats. The goats were habituated to the experimental procedures so that respiratory function could be determined while the animals stood quietly at rest. This enabled the physiological changes induced by etorphine to be measured and compared with those obtained before administration of the immobilising drug. The effectiveness of diprenorphine (M5050, Logos Agvet) (3 mg/l mg etorphine) as an antagonist of the physiological changes induced by the etorphine treatment was also determined. Etorphine depressed respiratory function, which resulted in a decrease in PaO2 and an increase in PaCO2. These changes were limited and occurred as a result of decreases in respiratory minute volume and alveolar minute ventilation caused by a decrease in respiratory rate. The physiological shunt fraction did not change significantly but there was a significant decrease in percentage physiological dead space ventilation. It was not possible to determine how effectively diprenorphine reversed the respiratory effects due to etorphine.

Surface and subsurface nitrate flow pathways on a watershed scale.

Determining the interaction and impact of surface runoff and subsurface flow processes on the environment has been hindered by our inability to characterize subsurface soil structures on a watershed scale. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) data were collected and evaluated in determining subsurface hydrology at four small watersheds in Beltsville, MD. The watersheds have similar textures, organic matter contents, and yield distributions. Although the surface slope was greater on one of the watersheds, slope alone could not explain why it also had a nitrate runoff flux that was 18 times greater than the other three watersheds. Only with knowledge of the subsurface hydrology could the surface runoff differences be explained. The subsurface hydrology was developed by combining GPR and surface topography in a geographic information system. Discrete subsurface flow pathways were identified and confirmed with color infrared imagery, real-time soil moisture monitoring, and yield monitoring. The discrete subsurface flow patterns were also useful in understanding observed nitrate levels entering the riparian wetland and first order stream. This study demonstrated the impact that subsurface stratigraphy can have on water and nitrate (NO3-N) fluxes exiting agricultural lands, even when soil properties, yield distributions, and climate are similar. Reliable protocols for measuring subsurface fluxes of water and chemicals need to be developed.