Exposure to nanoplastics and nanomaterials either single and combined affects the gill-associated microbiome of the Antarctic soft-shelled clam Laternula elliptica.

Nanoplastics and engineering nanomaterials (ENMs) are contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), increasingly being detected in the marine environment and recognized as a potential threat for marine biota at the global level including in polar areas. Few studies have assessed the impact of these anthropogenic nanoparticles in the microbiome of marine invertebrates, however combined exposure resembling natural scenarios has been overlooked. The present study aimed to evaluate the single and combined effects of polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NP) as proxy for nanoplastics and nanoscale titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) on the prokaryotic communities associated with the gill tissue of the Antarctic soft-shell clam Laternula elliptica, a keystone species of marine benthos Wild-caught specimens were exposed to two environmentally relevant concentrations of carboxylated PS NP (PS-COOH NP, ∼62 nm size) and nano-TiO2 (Aeroxide P25, ∼25 nm) as 5 and 50 µg/L either single and combined for 96h in a semi-static condition.Our findings show a shift in microbiome composition in gills of soft-shell clams exposed to PS NP and nano-TiO2 either alone and in combination with a decrease in the relative abundance of OTU1 (Spirochaetaceae). In addition, an increase of gammaproteobacterial OTUs affiliated to MBAE14 and Methylophagaceae (involved in ammonia denitrification and associated with low-quality water), and the OTU Colwellia rossensis (previously recorded in polluted waters) was observed. Our results suggest that nanoplastics and nano-TiO2 alone and in combination induce alterations in microbiome composition by promoting the increase of negative taxa over beneficial ones in the gills of the Antarctic soft-shell clam. An increase of two low abundance OTUs in PS-COOH NPs exposed clams was also observed. A predicted gene function analysis revealed that sugar, lipid, protein and DNA metabolism were the main functions affected by either PS-COOH NP and nano-TiO2 exposure. The molecular functions involved in the altered affiliated OTUs are novel for nano-CEC exposures.

Detection of plastic, cellulosic micro-fragments and microfibers in Laternula elliptica from King George Island (Maritime Antarctica).

It is generally acknowledged that microplastic pollutants are prevalent in ocean waters and sediments across a range of tropical, temperate, subpolar, and polar regions. The waters surrounding King George Island are significantly impacted by human activities, particularly those related to scientific stations, fishing, and tourism. Organisms, such as Laternula elliptica, can be used as environmental monitors due to the likelihood that they will bioaccumulate pollutants. The goal of this study was to quantify and identify plastic and cellulosic micro-fragments and microfibers present in the soft body of clams (n = 21), collected from Fildes Bay near sewage and wastewater discharges. Plastic and cellulose microfragments and microfibers were counted, and their compositions were determined using FT-IR. All 21 individuals sampled contained fragments and fibers, with a total of 900 items detected (42.86 ± 25.36 mean ± SD items per individual), or 1.82 items g.wet mass-1. 58 % of items were cellulose and 22 % plastic. Considering the plastic polymer compositions, 28.57 % were polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 21.43 % acrylic, 14.29 % high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 14.29 % Polypropylene (PP), 7.14 % ultra-high drawn polyethylene filament (UHMWPE), 7.14 % polyester and 7.14 % Polyethylene. The quantities and prevalence of MP in L. elliptica were higher than those found in other Antarctic marine species, and even in bivalves from populated regions of the world. Our work assessed the pollution status of L. elliptica near an effluent of wastewater plants and found that 95 % of individuals displayed MP and 100 % microfibers that could impact their population.

Microbiome profile of the Antarctic clam Laternula elliptica.

The filter feeder clam Laternula elliptica is a key species in the Antarctic ecosystem. As a stenothermal benthic species, it has a poor capacity for adaptation to small temperature variations. Despite their ecological importance and sensitivity to climate change, studies on their microbiomes are lacking. The goal of this study was to characterize the bacterial communities of L. elliptica and the tissues variability of this microbiome to provide an initial insight of host-microbiota interactions. We investigated the diversity and taxonomic composition of bacterial communities of L. elliptica from five regions of the body using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results showed that the microbiome of L. elliptica tended to differ from that of the surrounding seawater samples. However, there were no significant differences in the microbial composition between the body sites, and only two OTUs were present in all samples, being considered core microbiome (genus Moritella and Polaribacter). No significant differences were detected in diversity indexes among tissues (mean 626.85 for observed OTUs, 628.89 Chao1, 5.42 Shannon, and 0.87 Simpson). Rarefaction analysis revealed that most tissues reached a plateau of OTU number according to sample increase, with the exception of Siphon samples. Psychromonas and Psychrilyobacter were particularly abundant in L. elliptica whereas Fluviicola dominated seawater and siphons. Typical polar bacteria were Polaribacter, Shewanella, Colwellia, and Moritella. We detected the prevalence of pathogenic bacterial sequences, particularly in the family Arcobacteraceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Mycoplasmataceae. The prokaryotic diversity was similar among tissues, as well as their taxonomic composition, suggesting a homogeneity of the microbiome along L. elliptica body. The Antarctic clam population can be used to monitor the impact of human activity in areas near Antarctic stations that discharge wastewater.

Trophodynamics of the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) in the Antarctic Peninsula: Ontogenetic changes in diet composition and prey fatty acid profiles.

The Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) is the largest notothenioid species in the Southern Ocean, playing a keystone role in the trophic web as a food source for marine mammals and a top predator in deep-sea ecosystems. Most ecological knowledge on this species relies on samples from areas where direct fishing is allowed, whereas in areas closed to fishing, such as the Antarctic Peninsula (AP), there are still key ecological gaps to ensure effective conservation, especially regarding our understanding of its trophic relationships within the ecosystem. Here, we present the first comprehensive study of the feeding behavior of Antarctic toothfish caught in the northern tip of the AP, during two consecutive fishing seasons (2019/20 and 2020/21). Stomach content was analyzed according to size-classes, sex and season. Macroscopic morphological analysis was used to identify prey, whereas DNA analysis was used in highly digested prey items. Fatty acid analysis was conducted to determine the prey's nutritional composition. The diet mainly consisted of Macrouridae, Cephalopoda, Anotopteridae, and Channichthyidae. Other prey items found were crustaceans and penguin remains; however, these were rare in terms of their presence in stomach samples. Sex had no effect on diet, whereas size-class and fishing season influenced prey composition. From 27 fatty acid profiles identified, we observed two different prey groups of fishes (integrated by families Anotopteridae, Macrouridae and Channichthyidae) and cephalopods. Our results revealed a narrow range of prey items typical of a generalist predator, which probably consumes the most abundant prey. Understanding the diet and trophic relationships of Antarctic toothfish is critical for a better comprehension of its role in the benthic-demersal ecosystem of the AP, key for ecosystemic fisheries management, and relevant for understanding and predicting the effect of climate change on this species.

Contrasting environmental conditions precluded lower availability of Antarctic krill affecting breeding chinstrap penguins in the Antarctic Peninsula.

Dramatic decreases of chinstrap penguin populations across the Antarctic Peninsula (AP) are thought to be influenced by climate-driven changes affecting its main prey, the Antarctic krill, however, empirical evidence supporting such hypotheses are scarce. By coupling data on breeding chinstrap penguins, environmental remote sensing and estimates of krill acoustic density, we were able to demonstrate that penguins substantially increased their foraging effort in a year of low krill availability, with consequent reduction in breeding success. A winter of low sea ice cover followed by a summer/spring with stronger wind and lower marine productivity explained the lower and deeper krill availability. Our results highlight the importance of environmental variability on penguin populations, as variability is expected to increase under climate change, affecting foraging behaviour responses.

Evolution, Expression Patterns, and Distribution of Novel Ribbon Worm Predatory and Defensive Toxins.

Ribbon worms are active predators that use an eversible proboscis to inject venom into their prey and defend themselves with toxic epidermal secretions. Previous work on nemertean venom has largely focused on just a few species and has not investigated the different predatory and defensive secretions in detail. Consequently, our understanding of the composition and evolution of ribbon worm venoms is still very limited. Here, we present a comparative study of nemertean venom combining RNA-seq differential gene expression analyses of venom-producing tissues, tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomics of toxic secretions, and mass spectrometry imaging of proboscis sections, to shed light onto the composition and evolution of predatory and defensive toxic secretions in Antarctonemertes valida. Our analyses reveal a wide diversity of putative defensive and predatory toxins with tissue-specific gene expression patterns and restricted distributions to the mucus and proboscis proteomes respectively, suggesting that ribbon worms produce distinct toxin cocktails for predation and defense. Our results also highlight the presence of numerous lineage-specific toxins, indicating that venom evolution is highly divergent across nemerteans, producing toxin cocktails that might be finely tuned to subdue different prey. Our data also suggest that the hoplonemertean proboscis is a highly specialized predatory organ that seems to be involved in a variety of biological functions besides predation, including secretion and sensory perception. Overall, our results advance our knowledge into the diversity and evolution of nemertean venoms and highlight the importance of combining different types of data to characterize toxin composition in understudied venomous organisms.

Stability of the Microbiome of the Sponge Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata in the Western Antarctic Peninsula.

The sponge microbiome, especially in Low Microbial Abundance (LMA) species, is expected to be influenced by the local environment; however, contrasting results exist with evidence showing that host specificity is also important, hence suggesting that the microbiome is influenced by host-specific and environmental factors. Despite sponges being important members of Southern Ocean benthic communities, their relationships with the microbial communities they host remain poorly studied. Here, we studied the spatial and temporal patterns of the microbiota associated with the ecologically important LMA sponge M. acerata at sites along ∼400 km of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) to assess patterns in the core and variable microbial components of the symbiont communities of this sponge species. The analyses of 31 samples revealed that the microbiome of M. acerata is composed of 35 prokaryotic phyla (3 Archaea, 31 Bacteria, and one unaffiliated), being mainly dominated by Proteobacteria with Gammaproteobacteria as the most dominant class. The core community was composed of six prokaryotic OTUs, with gammaproteobacterial OTU (EC94 Family), showing a mean abundance over 65% of the total abundance. Despite some differences in rare OTUs, the core community did not show clear patterns in diversity and abundance associated with specific sites/environmental conditions, confirming a low variability in community structure of this species along the WAP. The analysis at small scale (Doumer Island, Palmer Archipelago) showed no differences in space and time in the microbiome M. acerata collected at sites around the island, sampled in three consecutive years (2016-2018). Our results highlight the existence of a low spatial and temporal variability in the microbiome of M. acerata, supporting previous suggestions based on limited studies on this and other Antarctic sponges.

Variability in Host Specificity and Functional Potential of Antarctic Sponge-Associated Bacterial Communities.

Sponge-associated microorganisms are essential for sponge survival. They play an important role in recycling nutrients and, therefore, in the maintenance of the ecosystem. These microorganisms are diverse, species-specific, and different from those in the surrounding seawater. Bacterial sponge symbionts have been extensively studied in the tropics; however, little is known about these microorganisms in sponges from high-latitude environments. Sponges can cover up to 80% of the benthos in Antarctica and are crucial architects for the marine food web. In this study, we present analyses of the bacterial symbionts of three sponges: Haliclona (Rhizoniera) sp., Hymeniacidon torquata, and Isodictya kerguelenensis from the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) with the aim to determine variations on the specificity of the bacteria-sponge interactions and potential signatures on their predicted functional profiles. We use high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing of 30 sponge individuals inhabiting South Bay (Palmer Archipelago, WAP) to describe their microbiome taxonomy and diversity and predict potential functional profiles based on this marker gene. Our work shows similar bacterial community composition profiles among the same sponge species, although the symbiotic relationship is not equally conserved among the three Antarctic sponges. The number of species-specific core operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of these Antarctic sponges was low, with important differences between the total abundance accounted for these OTUs. Only eight OTUs were shared between the three sponge species. Analyses of the functional potential revealed that despite the high host-symbiont specificity, the inferred functions are conserved among these microbiomes, although with differences in the abundance of specific functions. H. torquata showed the highest level of intra-specificity and a higher potential of pathways related to energy metabolism, metabolisms of terpenoids and polyketides, and biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites. Overall, this work shows variations in the specificity of the sponge-associated bacterial communities, differences in how hosts and symbionts establish their relations, and in their potential functional capabilities.

Antarctic krill fishery effects over penguin populations under adverse climate conditions: Implications for the management of fishing practices.

Fast climate changes in the western Antarctic Peninsula are reducing krill density, which along with increased fishing activities in recent decades, may have had synergistic effects on penguin populations. We tested that assumption by crossing data on fishing activities and Southern Annular Mode (an indicator of climate change in Antarctica) with penguin population data. Increases in fishing catch during the non-breeding period were likely to result in impacts on both chinstrap (Pygoscelis antarcticus) and gentoo (P. papua) populations. Catches and climate change together elevated the probability of negative population growth rates: very high fishing catch on years with warm winters and low sea ice (associated with negative Southern Annular Mode values) implied a decrease in population size in the following year. The current management of krill fishery in the Southern Ocean takes into account an arbitrary and fixed catch limit that does not reflect the variability of the krill population under effects of climate change, therefore affecting penguin populations when the environmental conditions were not favorable.

Spatial patterns of continental shelf faunal community structure along the Western Antarctic Peninsula.

Knowledge of continental shelf faunal biodiversity of Antarctica is patchy and as such, the ecology of this unique ecosystem is not fully understood. To this end, we deployed baited cameras at 20 locations along ~ 500 km of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) at depths from 90 to 797 m. We identified 111 unique taxa, with mud bottom accounting for 90% of the dominant (≥ 50% cover) habitat sampled. Amphipoda comprised 41% of the total maximum number of individuals per camera deployment (MaxN) and occurred on 75% of deployments. Excluding this taxon, the highest MaxN occurred around King George/25 de Mayo Island and was driven primarily by the abundance of krill (Euphausiidae), which accounted for 36% of total average MaxN among deployments around this island. In comparison, krill comprised 22% of total average MaxN at Deception Island and only 10% along the peninsula. Taxa richness, diversity, and evenness all increased with depth and depth explained 18.2% of the variation in community structure among locations, which may be explained by decreasing ice scour with depth. We identified a number of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem taxa, including habitat-forming species of cold-water corals and sponge fields. Channichthyidae was the most common fish family, occurring on 80% of all deployments. The Antarctic jonasfish (Notolepis coatsorum) was the most frequently encountered fish taxa, occurring on 70% of all deployments and comprising 25% of total MaxN among all deployments. Nototheniidae was the most numerically abundant fish family, accounting for 36% of total MaxN and was present on 70% of the deployments. The WAP is among the fastest warming regions on Earth and mitigating the impacts of warming, along with more direct impacts such as those from fishing, is critical in providing opportunities for species to adapt to environmental change and to preserve this unique ecosystem.

Sponges from Doumer Island, Antarctic Peninsula, with description of new species of Clathria (Axosuberites) Topsent, 1893 and Hymeniacidon Bowerbank, 1858, and a re-description of H. torquata Topsent, 1916.

Antarctic sponges were mainly studied from trawling or dredging (shallow and deep water) during pioneering oceanographic expeditions carried out since the late 19th century. More recently, sponge collections by SCUBA diving have allowed the detection of species in more cryptic habitats such as rocky walls. In this study, we analyzed Antarctic sponges collected by SCUBA (in 2016 to 2018; shallower than 25 m) around Doumer Island (Palmer Archipelago, Western Antarctic Peninsula-WAP), where only five sponge species have been known. We gathered over 215 specimens, most part identified; 18 known species and one new species. Clathria (Axosuberites) retamalesi sp. nov., is set apart from its congeners on account of the combination of its habit, categories and dimensions of spicules. The East Antarctic material named as Hymeniacidon spec. (3397 m depth) from the Gauss scientific collection has been related to the shallow species H. torquata Topsent, 1916. We described H. torquata based in several specimens (n= 51) from Doumer Island (WAP), only ca. 41 km from Petermann Island (the type locality). Spicules of H. torquata are smaller than the ones present in the Hymeniacidon spec. material, which is here named Hymeniacidon hentscheli sp. nov., since it does not fit into any known cold water species of Hymeniacidon from Antarctica or the Southern Hemisphere, due to a combination of habit, oscula shape, and spicule dimensions. Only five sponge species were previously known from Doumer Island, also collected by SCUBA. Our findings suggest that the ongoing study of collections of sponges assembled at Doumer Island will still yield new taxonomic findings.

Temporal Stability of Bacterial Communities in Antarctic Sponges.

Marine sponges host dense, diverse, and species-specific microbial communities around the globe; however, most of the current knowledge is restricted to species from tropical and temperate waters. Only recently, some studies have assessed the microbiome of a few Antarctic sponges; however, contrary to low mid-latitude sponges, the knowledge about temporal (stability) patterns in the bacterial communities of Antarctic sponges is absent. Here, we studied the temporal patterns of bacterial communities in the Antarctic sponges Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata, Isodictya sp., Hymeniacidon torquata, and Tedania (Tedaniopsis) wellsae that were tagged in situ and monitored during three austral summers over a 24-month period. By using amplicon sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene we found that the microbiome differed between species. In general, bacterial communities were dominated by gammaproteobacterial OTUs; however, M. acerata showed the most distinct pattern, being dominated by a single betaproteobacterial OTU. The analysis at OTU level (defined at 97% sequence similarity) showed a highly stable bacterial community through time, despite the abnormal seawater temperatures (reaching 3°C) and rates of temperature increase of 0.15°C day-1 recorded in austral summer 2017. Sponges were characterized by a small core bacterial community that accounted for a high percentage of the abundance. Overall, no consistent changes in core OTU abundance were recorded for all studied species, confirming a high temporal stability of the microbiome. In addition, predicted functional pathway profiles showed that the most abundant pathways among all sponges belonged mostly to metabolism pathway groups (e.g., amino acid, carbohydrate, energy, and nucleotide). The predicted functional pathway patterns differed among the four sponge species. However, no clear temporal differences were detected supporting what was found in terms of the relatively stable composition of the bacterial communities.

Warm temperatures, cool sponges: the effect of increased temperatures on the Antarctic sponge Isodictya sp.

Although the cellular and molecular responses to exposure to relatively high temperatures (acute thermal stress or heat shock) have been studied previously, only sparse empirical evidence of how it affects cold-water species is available. As climate change becomes more pronounced in areas such as the Western Antarctic Peninsula, both long-term and occasional acute temperature rises will impact species found there, and it has become crucial to understand the capacity of these species to respond to such thermal stress. Here, we use the Antarctic sponge Isodictya sp. to investigate how sessile organisms (particularly Porifera) can adjust to acute short-term heat stress, by exposing this species to 3 and 5 °C for 4 h, corresponding to predicted temperatures under high-end 2080 IPCC-SRES scenarios. Assembling a de novo reference transcriptome (90,188 contigs, >93.7% metazoan BUSCO genes) we have begun to discern the molecular response employed by Isodictya to adjust to heat exposure. Our initial analyses suggest that TGF-ß, ubiquitin and hedgehog cascades are involved, alongside other genes. However, the degree and type of response changed little from 3 to 5 °C in the time frame examined, suggesting that even moderate rises in temperature could cause stress at the limits of this organism's capacity. Given the importance of sponges to Antarctic ecosystems, our findings are vital for discerning the consequences of short-term increases in Antarctic ocean temperature on these and other species.

Benthic primary production and respiration of shallow rocky habitats: a case study from South Bay (Doumer Island, Western Antarctic Peninsula).

Rocky benthic communities are common in Antarctic coastal habitats; yet little is known about their carbon turnover rates. Here, we performed a broad survey of shallow ( < 65 m depth) rocky ice-scoured habitats of South Bay (Doumer Island, Western Antarctic Peninsula), combining (i) biodiversity assessments from benthic imaging, and (ii) in situ benthic dissolved oxygen (O2) exchange rates quantified by the aquatic eddy covariance technique. The 18 study sites revealed a gradual transition from macroalgae and coralline-dominated communities at ice-impacted depths (15-25 m; zone I) to large suspension feeders (e.g., sponges, bivalves) at depth zone II (25-40 m) and extensive suspension feeders at the deepest study location (zone III; 40-65 m). Gross primary production (GPP) in zone I was up to 70 mmol O2 m-2 d-1 and dark ecosystem respiration (ER) ranged from 15 to 90 mmol m-2 d-1. Zone II exhibited reduced GPP (average 1.1 mmol m-2 d-1) and ER rates from 6 to 36 mmol m-2 d-1, whereas aphotic zone III exhibited ER between 1 and 6 mmol m-2 d-1. Benthic ER exceeded GPP at all study sites, with daily net ecosystem metabolism (NEM) ranging from - 22 mmol m-2 d-1 at the shallow sites to - 4 mmol m-2 d-1 at 60 m. Similar NEM dynamics have been observed for hard-substrate Arctic habitats at comparable depths. Despite relatively high GPP during summer, coastal rocky habitats appear net heterotrophic. This is likely due to active drawdown of organic material by suspension-feeding communities that are key for biogeochemical and ecological functioning of high-latitude coastal ecosystems.

High similarity in the microbiota of cold-water sponges of the Genus Mycale from two different geographical areas.

Sponges belonging to genus Mycale are common and widely distributed across the oceans and represent a significant component of benthic communities in term of their biomass, which in many species is largely composed by bacteria. However, the microbial communities associated with Mycale species inhabiting different geographical areas have not been previously compared. Here, we provide the first detailed description of the microbiota of two Mycale species inhabiting the sub-Antarctic Magellan region (53°S) and the Western Antarctic Peninsula (62-64°S), two geographically distant areas (>1,300 km) with contrasting environmental conditions. The sponges Mycale (Aegogropila) magellanica and Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata are both abundant members of benthic communities in the Magellan region and in Antarctica, respectively. High throughput sequencing revealed a remarkable similarity in the microbiota of both sponge species, dominated by Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes, with both species sharing more than 74% of the OTUs. In contrast, 16% and 10% of the OTUs were found only in either M. magellanica or M. acerata, respectively. Interestingly, despite slight differences in the relative abundance, the most dominant OTUs were present in both species, whereas the unique OTUs had very low abundances (less than 1% of the total abundance). These results show a significant overlap among the microbiota of both Mycale species and also suggest the existence of a low level of specificity of the most dominant symbiont groups.

HSP70 from the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri: molecular characterization and expression in response to heat stress.

BACKGROUND: Heat stress proteins are implicated in stabilizing and refolding denatured proteins in vertebrates and invertebrates. Members of the Hsp70 gene family comprise the cognate heat shock protein (Hsc70) and inducible heat shock protein (Hsp70). However, the cDNA sequence and the expression of Hsp70 in the Antarctic sea urchin are unknown. METHODS: We amplified and cloned a transcript sequence of 1991 bp from the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri, experimentally exposed to heat stress (5  and 10 °C for 1, 24 and 48 h). RACE-PCR and qPCR were employed to determine Hsp70 gene expression, while western blot and ELISA methods were used to determine protein expression. RESULTS: The sequence obtained from S. neumayeri showed high identity with Hsp70 members. Several Hsp70 family features were identified in the deduced amino acid sequence and they indicate that the isolated Hsp70 is related to the cognate heat shock protein type. The corresponding 70 kDa protein, called Sn-Hsp70, was immune detected in the coelomocytes and the digestive tract of S. neumayeri using a monospecific polyclonal antibody. We showed that S. neumayeri do not respond to acute heat stress by up-regulation of Sn-Hsp70 at transcript and protein level. Furthermore, the Sn-Hsp70 protein expression was not induced in the digestive tract. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide the first molecular evidence that Sn-Hsp70 is expressed constitutively and is non-induced by heat stress in S. neumayeri.

The importance of local settings: within-year variability in seawater temperature at South Bay, Western Antarctic Peninsula.

The Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) has undergone significant changes in air and seawater temperatures during the last 50 years. Although highly stenotherm Antarctic organisms are expected to be severely affected by the increase of seawater temperature, high-resolution datasets of seawater temperature within coastal areas of the WAP (where diverse marine communities have been reported) are not commonly available. Here we report on within-year (2016-2017) variation in seawater temperature at three sites on Doumer Island, Palmer Archipelago, WAP. Within a year, Antarctic organisms in South Bay were exposed to water temperatures in excess of 2 °C for more than 25 days and 2.5 °C for more than 10 days. We recorded a temperature range between -1.7° to 3.0 °C. Warming of seawater temperature was 3.75 times faster after October 2016 than it was before October. Results from this study indicate that organisms at South Bay are already exposed to temperatures that are being used in experimental studies to evaluate physiological responses to thermal stress in WAP organisms. Continuous measurements of short to long-term variability in seawater temperature provides important information for parametrizing meaningful experimental treatments that aim to assess the local effects of environmental variation on Antarctic organisms under future climate scenarios.

HSP70 from the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri: molecular characterization and expression in response to heat stress

Abstract Background: Heat stress proteins are implicated in stabilizing and refolding denatured proteins in vertebrates and invertebrates. Members of the Hsp70 gene family comprise the cognate heat shock protein (Hsc70) and inducible heat shock protein (Hsp70). However, the cDNA sequence and the expression of Hsp70 in the Antarctic sea urchin are unknown. Methods: We amplified and cloned a transcript sequence of 1991 bp from the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri, experimentally exposed to heat stress (5 and 10 °C for 1, 24 and 48 h). RACE-PCR and qPCR were employed to determine Hsp70 gene expression, while western blot and ELISA methods were used to determine protein expression. Results: The sequence obtained from S. neumayeri showed high identity with Hsp70 members. Several Hsp70 family features were identified in the deduced amino acid sequence and they indicate that the isolated Hsp70 is related to the cognate heat shock protein type. The corresponding 70 kDa protein, called Sn-Hsp70, was immune detected in the coelomocytes and the digestive tract of S. neumayeri using a monospecific polyclonal antibody. We showed that S. neumayeri do not respond to acute heat stress by up-regulation of Sn-Hsp70 at transcript and protein level. Furthermore, the Sn-Hsp70 protein expression was not induced in the digestive tract. Conclusions: Our results provide the first molecular evidence that Sn-Hsp70 is expressed constitutively and is noninduced by heat stress in S. neumayeri.

Lissodendoryx (Ectyodoryx) Lundbeck, 1909 (Coelosphaeridae, Poecilosclerida, Demospongiae) from Southern Chile: new species and a discussion of morphologic characters in the subgenus.

Our ongoing studies of the Chilean sponge fauna revealed four new species of Lissodendoryx (Ectyodoryx) that are described here, including three from the fjord's region (< 30 m depth, L.(E.) ballena sp. nov., L. (E.) corrugata sp. nov.,      L. (E.) coloanensis sp. nov.), and one from the deep waters off Diego Ramírez Archipelago (ca. 2000 m, L. (E.) diegoramirezensis sp. nov.). In addition, the type of L. (E.) anacantha was revised and found to bear much larger acanthostyles than originally reported. Our results revealed skeletal architectures quite distinct from that reported from the type species of L. (Ectyodoryx), and not predicted in the current diagnosis of Lissodendoryx, requiring an amended diagnosis. Ectosomal megascleres also set the majority of the new species apart from the type species of L. (Ectyodoryx), which does not have terminally microspined (sub)tylotes. This character is widespread in Lissodendoryx and might be pointing to phylogenetic affinities across the current subgeneric arrangement. Further morphologic characters and alternative phylogenetic scenarios are discussed, including hymedesmiid and myxillid affinities of the species described here.