Chondroitin sulfate reduces cell death of rat hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation by inhibiting p38, NFκB and iNOS.

The glycosaminoglycan chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a major constituent of the extracellular matrix of the central nervous system where it can constitute part of the perineuronal nets. Constituents of the perineuronal nets are gaining interest because they have modulatory actions on their neighbouring neurons. In this study we have investigated if CS could afford protection in an acute in vitro ischemia/reoxygenation model by using isolated hippocampal slices subjected to 60min oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) followed by 120min reoxygenation (OGD/Reox). In this toxicity model, CS afforded protection of rat hippocampal slices measured as a reduction of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release; maximum protection (70% reduction of LDH) was obtained at the concentration of 3mM. To evaluate the intracellular signaling pathways implicated in the protective effect of CS, we first analysed the participation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) p38 and ERK1/2 by western blot. OGD/Reox induced the phosphorylation of p38 and dephosphorylation of ERK1/2; however, CS only inhibited p38 but had no effect on ERK1/2. Furthermore, OGD/Reox-induced translocation of p65 to the nucleus was prevented in CS treated hippocampal slices. Finally, CS inhibited iNOS induction caused by OGD/Reox and thereby nitric oxide (NO) production measured as a reduction in DAF-2 DA fluorescence. In conclusion, the protective effect of CS in hippocampal slices subjected to OGD/Reox can be related to a modulatory action of the local immune response by a mechanism that implies inhibition of p38, NFκB, iNOS and the production of NO.

NP04634 prevents cell damage caused by calcium overload and mitochondrial disruption in bovine chromaffin cells.

Marine sponges are becoming a rich source of potential new medicines. NP04634 is a synthetic derivative of 11,19 dideoxyfistularin, a natural product of the Mediterranean sponge Aplysina cavernicola. We report the cytoprotective effects of this new compound in isolated bovine chromaffin cells exposed to cytotoxic stimuli that have been related to neuronal cell death, i.e. Ca(2+) overload and mitochondrial dysfunction. Cell death was achieved by: (i) causing Ca(2+) overload through voltage-dependent calcium channels by exposing the cells to 30 mM K(+), 5 mM Ca(2+) plus 0.3 microM FPL64176 (an L-type Ca(2+)-channel activator); (ii) incubating the cells with veratridine, causing cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)) oscillations and mitochondrial disruption; and (iii) blocking mitochondrial complexes I and V using a combination of 30 microM rotenone and 10 microM oligomycin. At 10 microM, NP04634 caused significant protection against 30K(+)/5Ca(2+)/FPL-induced toxicity. NP04634 caused a concentration-dependent reduction in [Ca(2+)](c) induced by 70 mM K(+) in cells loaded with Fluo-4; maximum blockade was 67% at 30 microM. Veratridine caused continuous [Ca(2+)](c) oscillations that translated into 43.4+/-2% cell death. In this model, NP04634 caused 42% and 67% protection at 3 and 10 microM, respectively. NP04634 reduced [Ca(2+)](c) oscillations and mitochondrial depolarization caused by veratridine. NP04634 at 10 microM also protected against mitochondrial disruption caused by rotenone plus oligomycin. In conclusion, NP04634 is a novel compound of marine origin with cytoprotective properties that might have potential therapeutic implications under pathological circumstances involving Ca(2+) overload and mitochondrial disruption, such as in certain neurodegenerative diseases and/or stroke.

Chondroitin sulfate protects SH-SY5Y cells from oxidative stress by inducing heme oxygenase-1 via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt.

We investigated the mechanism of the neuroprotective properties of chondroitin sulfate (CS), an endogenous perineuronal net glycosaminoglycan, in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells subjected to oxidative stress. Preincubation with CS for 24 h afforded concentration-dependent protection against H2O2-induced toxicity (50 microM for 24 h) measured as lactic dehydrogenase released to the incubation media; cell death was prevented at the concentrations of 600 and 1000 microM. Cell death caused by a combination of 10 microM rotenone plus 1 microM oligomycin-A (Rot/oligo) was also reduced by CS at concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 100 microM; in this toxicity model, maximum protection was achieved at 3 microM (48%). No significant protection was observed in a cell death model of Ca2+ overload (70 mM K+, for 24 h). H2O2 and Rot/oligo generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) measured as an increase in the fluorescence of dichlorofluorescein diacetate-loaded cells. CS drastically reduced ROS generation induced by both H2O2 (extracellular ROS) and Rot/oligo (intracellular ROS). CS also increased the expression of phosphorylated Akt and heme oxygenase-1 by 2-fold. The protective effects of CS were prevented by chelerythrine, 2-(4-morpholinyl)-8-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (LY294002), cycloheximide, and Sn(IV)-protoporphyrin IX. Taken together, these results show that CS can protect SH-SY5Y cells under oxidative stress conditions by activating protein kinase C, which phosphorylates Akt that, via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway, induces the synthesis of the antioxidant protein heme oxygenase-1.