The Nanomechanical Properties of CLL Cells Are Linked to the Actin Cytoskeleton and Are a Potential Target of BTK Inhibitors.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is an incurable disease characterized by an intense trafficking of the leukemic cells between the peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. It is known that the ability of lymphocytes to recirculate strongly depends on their capability to rapidly rearrange their cytoskeleton and adapt to external cues; however, little is known about the differences occurring between CLL and healthy B cells during these processes. To investigate this point, we applied a single-cell optical (super resolution microscopy) and nanomechanical approaches (atomic force microscopy, real-time deformability cytometry) to both CLL and healthy B lymphocytes and compared their behavior. We demonstrated that CLL cells have a specific actomyosin complex organization and altered mechanical properties in comparison to their healthy counterpart. To evaluate the clinical relevance of our findings, we treated the cells in vitro with the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors and we found for the first time that the drug restores the CLL cells mechanical properties to a healthy phenotype and activates the actomyosin complex. We further validated these results in vivo on CLL cells isolated from patients undergoing ibrutinib treatment. Our results suggest that CLL cells' mechanical properties are linked to their actin cytoskeleton organization and might be involved in novel mechanisms of drug resistance, thus becoming a new potential therapeutic target aiming at the normalization of the mechanical fingerprints of the leukemic cells.

Caveolin-1 dolines form a distinct and rapid caveolae-independent mechanoadaptation system.

In response to different types and intensities of mechanical force, cells modulate their physical properties and adapt their plasma membrane (PM). Caveolae are PM nano-invaginations that contribute to mechanoadaptation, buffering tension changes. However, whether core caveolar proteins contribute to PM tension accommodation independently from the caveolar assembly is unknown. Here we provide experimental and computational evidence supporting that caveolin-1 confers deformability and mechanoprotection independently from caveolae, through modulation of PM curvature. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy reveals that caveolin-1 stabilizes non-caveolar invaginations-dolines-capable of responding to low-medium mechanical forces, impacting downstream mechanotransduction and conferring mechanoprotection to cells devoid of caveolae. Upon cavin-1/PTRF binding, doline size is restricted and membrane buffering is limited to relatively high forces, capable of flattening caveolae. Thus, caveolae and dolines constitute two distinct albeit complementary components of a buffering system that allows cells to adapt efficiently to a broad range of mechanical stimuli.

Chromatin dynamics through mouse preimplantation development revealed by single molecule localisation microscopy.

Most studies addressing chromatin behaviour during preimplantation development are based on biochemical assays that lack spatial and cell-specific information, crucial during early development. Here, we describe the changes in chromatin taking place at the transition from totipotency to lineage specification, by using direct stochastical optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) in whole-mount embryos during the first stages of mouse development. Through the study of two post-translational modifications of Histone 3 related to active and repressed chromatin, H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 respectively, we obtained a time-course of chromatin states, showing spatial differences between cell types, related to their differentiation state. This analysis adds a new layer of information to previous biochemical studies and provides novel insight to current models of chromatin organisation during the first stages of development.

3D-STED Super-Resolution Microscopy Reveals Distinct Nanoscale Organization of the Hematopoietic Cell-Specific Lyn Substrate-1 (HS1) in Normal and Leukemic B Cells.

HS1, the hematopoietic homolog of cortactin, acts as a versatile actin-binding protein in leucocytes. After phosphorylation, it is involved in GTPase and integrin activation, and in BCR, TCR, and CXCR4 downstream signaling. In normal and leukemic B cells, HS1 is a central cytoskeletal interactor and its phosphorylation and expression are prognostic factors in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients. We here introduce for the first time a super-resolution imaging study based on single-cell 3D-STED microscopy optimized for revealing and comparing the nanoscale distribution of endogenous HS1 in healthy B and CLL primary cells. Our study reveals that the endogenous HS1 forms heterogeneous nanoclusters, similar to those of YFP-HS1 overexpressed in the leukemic MEC1 cell line. HS1 nanoclusters in healthy and leukemic B cells form bulky assemblies at the basal sides, suggesting the recruitment of HS1 for cell adhesion. This observation agrees with a phasor-FLIM-FRET and STED colocalization analyses of the endogenous MEC1-HS1, indicating an increased interaction with Vimentin at the cell adhesion sites. In CLL cells isolated from patients with poor prognosis, we observed a larger accumulation of HS1 at the basal region and a higher density of HS1 nanoclusters in the central regions of the cells if compared to good-prognosis CLL and healthy B cells, suggesting a different role for the protein in the cell types analyzed. Our 3D-STED approach lays the ground for revealing tiny differences of HS1 distribution, its functionally active forms, and colocalization with protein partners.

Three-dimensional co-culture model of chronic lymphocytic leukemia bone marrow microenvironment predicts patient-specific response to mobilizing agents.

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) cells disseminate into supportive tissue microenvironments. To investigate the mechanisms involved in leukemic cell tissue retention we developed a 3D bone marrow (BM) microenvironment that recreates CLL - BM-stromal cells interactions inside a scaffold within a bioreactor. Our system allows the parallel analysis of CLL cells retained inside the scaffold and those released in the presence/absence of pharmacological agents, mimicking tissue and circulating cell compartments, respectively. CLL cells can be retained within the scaffold only in the presence of microenvironmental elements, which through direct contact down-regulate the expression of HS1 cytoskeletal protein in CLL cells. Consist with this, the expression of HS1 was lower in CLL cells obtained from patients' BM versus CLL cells circulating in the PB. Moreover, we demonstrate that CLL cells with inactive-HS1, impaired cytoskeletal activity and a more aggressive phenotype are more likely retained within the scaffold despite the presence of Ibrutinib, whose mobilizing effect is mainly exerted on those with active-HS1, ensuing dynamic cytoskeletal activity. This differential effect would not otherwise be assessable in a traditional 2D system and may underlie a distinctive resistance of single CLL clones. Notably, CLL cells mobilized in the peripheral blood of patients during Ibrutinib therapy exhibited activated HS1, underscoring that our model reliably mirrors the in vivo situation. The 3D model described herein is suitable to reproduce and identify critical CLL-BM interactions, opening the way to pathophysiological studies and the evaluation of novel targeted therapies in an individualized manner.

Oligomerization Dynamics of Cell Surface Receptors in Living Cells by Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy Combined with Number and Brightness Analysis.

Despite the importance and ubiquity of receptor oligomerization, few methods are applicable for detecting clustering events and measuring the degree of clustering. Here, we describe an imaging approach to determine the average oligomeric state of mEGFP-tagged-receptor homocomplexes in the membrane of living cells. The protocol is based on Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy combined with Number and Brightness (N&B) analysis. N&B is a method similar to fluorescence-correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and photon counting histogram (PCH), which are based on the statistical analysis of the fluctuations of the fluorescence intensity of fluorophores diffusing in and out of an illumination volume during an observation time. In particular, N&B is a simplification of PCH to obtain information on the average number of proteins in oligomeric mixtures. The intensity fluctuation amplitudes are described by the molecular brightness of the fluorophore and the average number of fluorophores within the illumination volume. Thus, N&B considers only the first and second moments of the amplitude distribution, namely, the mean intensity and the variance. This is, at the same time, the strength and the weakness of the method. Because only two moments are considered, N&B cannot determine the molar fraction of unknown oligomers in a mixture, but it only estimates the average oligomerization state of the mixture. Nevertheless, it can be applied to relatively small time series (compared to other moment methods) of images of live cells on a pixel-by-pixel basis, simply by monitoring the time fluctuations of the fluorescence intensity. It reduces the effective time-per-pixel to a few microseconds, allowing acquisition in the time range of seconds to milliseconds, which is necessary for fast oligomerization kinetics. Finally, large cell areas as well as sub-cellular compartments can be explored.

Number and brightness analysis reveals that NCAM and FGF2 elicit different assembly and dynamics of FGFR1 in live cells.

Both fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) and neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) trigger FGF receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling; however, they induce remarkably distinct receptor trafficking and cellular responses. The molecular basis of such a dichotomy and the role of distinct types of ligand-receptor interaction remain elusive. Number of molecules and brightness (N&B) analysis revealed that FGF2 and NCAM promote different FGFR1 assembly and dynamics at the plasma membrane. NCAM stimulation elicits long-lasting cycles of short-lived FGFR1 monomers and multimers, a behavior that might reflect a rapid FGFR1 internalization and recycling. FGF2, instead, induces stable dimerization at the dose that stimulates cell proliferation. Reducing the occupancy of FGFR1 in response to low FGF2 doses causes a switch towards cyclically exposed and unstable receptor dimers, consistently with previously reported biphasic response to FGF2 and with the divergent signaling elicited by different ligand concentrations. Similar instability was observed upon altering the endocytic pathway. Thus, FGF2 and NCAM induce differential FGFR1 clustering at the cell surface, which might account for the distinct intracellular fate of the receptor and, hence, for the different signaling cascades and cellular responses.

MouBeAT: A New and Open Toolbox for Guided Analysis of Behavioral Tests in Mice.

Animal behavioral tests are essential to understand the bases of neurologic and psychological disorders, which can be evaluated by different methodological and experimental models. However, the quantification of behavioral tests results is limited by the considerable amount of time needed for manual evaluation and the high costs of automated analysis software. To overcome these limitations, we describe here a new, open source toolbox for ImageJ, called Mouse Behavioral Analysis Toolbox (MouBeAT), designed to analyze different behavioral tests in rodents semi-automatically. These tests include Open Field (OF), Elevated Plus Maze (EPM), Y-maze (YM) test and Morris Water Maze (MWM). MouBeAT showed a high correlation with manual evaluation in all the parameters analyzed for all the behavioral tests, reinforcing its value as an accurate analysis tool. This new tool is freely available online.

Efficient up-conversion in Yb:Er:NaT(XO4)2 thermal nanoprobes. Imaging of their distribution in a perfused mouse.

Yb and Er codoped NaT(XO4)2 (T = Y, La, Gd, Lu and X = Mo, W) disordered oxides show a green (Er3+ related) up-conversion (UC) efficiency comparable to that of Yb:Er:ß-NaYF4 compound and unless 3 times larger UC ratiometric thermal sensitivity. The similar UC efficiency of Yb:Er doped NaT(XO4)2 and ß-NaYF4 compounds allowed testing equal subcutaneous depths of ex-vivo chicken tissue in both cases. This extraordinary behavior for NaT(XO4)2 oxides with large cutoff phonon energy (hω≈ 920 cm-1) is ascribed to 4F9/2 electron population recycling to higher energy 4G11/2 level by a phonon assisted transition. Crystalline nanoparticles of Yb:Er:NaLu(MoO4)2 have been synthesized by sol-gel with sizes most commonly in the 50-80 nm range, showing a relatively small reduction of the UC efficiency with regards to bulk materials. Fluorescence lifetime and multiphoton imaging microscopies show that these nanoparticles can be efficiently distributed to all body organs of a perfused mouse.

Application limits and data correction in number of molecules and brightness analysis.

Number of molecules and Brightness (N&B) has been proposed for measuring the molecular brightness and number of fluorophores in time-sequence of images, in live cells. If the fluorescently tagged-proteins are mobile in the illumination volume, the stoichiometry of their oligomers can be derived from the increase of the brightness of the fluorescent dyes due to clustering. We examine aspects concerning extra-fluctuation effects induced by cell shifts and photobleaching, which yield large overestimates of the clusters size and sub-unit counts. We develop an offline corrective approach consisting in frame re-alignment and boxcar filtering for recovering precision of the analysis. Using simulations we derive general criteria for approaching this analysis, and assess the application limits of the corrective procedure. We tested the approach in extreme experimental conditions (few pixels, large extra-variance perturbations), in which we analyzed the minimal increases of brightness as that expected between a monomeric and dimeric GPI-mEGFP constructs. We show how most of the perturbing effects can be abolished, and obtain the correct the brightness of GPI-mEGFP monomers and dimers.

Number and brightness image analysis reveals ATF-induced dimerization kinetics of uPAR in the cell membrane.

We studied the molecular forms of the GPI-anchored urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR-mEGFP) in the human embryo kidney (HEK293) cell membrane and demonstrated that the binding of the amino-terminal fragment (ATF) of urokinase plasminogen activator is sufficient to induce the dimerization of the receptor. We followed the association kinetics and determined precisely the dimeric stoichiometry of uPAR-mEGFP complexes by applying number and brightness (N&B) image analysis. N&B is a novel fluctuation-based approach for measuring the molecular brightness of fluorophores in an image time sequence in live cells. Because N&B is very sensitive to long-term temporal fluctuations and photobleaching, we have introduced a filtering protocol that corrects for these important sources of error. Critical experimental parameters in N&B analysis are illustrated and analyzed by simulation studies. Control experiments are based on mEGFP-GPI, mEGFP-mEGFP-GPI, and mCherry-GPI, expressed in HEK293. This work provides a first direct demonstration of the dimerization of uPAR in live cells. We also provide the first methodological guide on N&B to discern minor changes in molecular composition such as those due to dimerization events, which are involved in fundamental cell signaling mechanisms.

Endothelial adhesion receptors are recruited to adherent leukocytes by inclusion in preformed tetraspanin nanoplatforms.

VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, receptors for leukocyte integrins, are recruited to cell-cell contact sites on the apical membrane of activated endothelial cells. In this study, we show that this recruitment is independent of ligand engagement, actin cytoskeleton anchorage, and heterodimer formation. Instead, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 are recruited by inclusion within specialized preformed tetraspanin-enriched microdomains, which act as endothelial adhesive platforms (EAPs). Using advanced analytical fluorescence techniques, we have characterized the diffusion properties at the single-molecule level, nanoscale organization, and specific intradomain molecular interactions of EAPs in living primary endothelial cells. This study provides compelling evidence for the existence of EAPs as physical entities at the plasma membrane, distinct from lipid rafts. Scanning electron microscopy of immunogold-labeled samples treated with a specific tetraspanin-blocking peptide identify nanoclustering of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 within EAPs as a novel mechanism for supramolecular organization that regulates the leukocyte integrin-binding capacity of both endothelial receptors during extravasation.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and photon counting histogram on membrane proteins: functional dynamics of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored urokinase plasminogen activator receptor.

The oligomerization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins is thought to regulate their association with membrane microdomains, subcellular sorting, and activity. However, these mechanisms need to be comprehensively explored in living, unperturbed cells, without artificial clustering agents, and using fluorescent protein-tagged chimeras that are fully biologically active. We expressed in human embryo kidnay 293 (HEK293) cells a biologically active chimera of the urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR), the uPAR-mEGFP-GPI. We also produced HEK293/D2D3-mEGFP-GPI cells expressing the truncated form of the receptor, lacking biological activity. We studied the dynamics and oligomerization of the two proteins, combining fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and photon counting histogram (PCH) analyses, and using subclones with homogenously low expression levels. Overall, the mobile fractions of the two proteins, constituted by monomers and dimers, had comparable diffusion coefficients. However, the diffusion coefficient decreased in monomer-enriched fractions only for the active receptor, suggesting that uPAR monomers might be preferentially engaged in multiprotein transmembrane signaling complexes. Our approach helps in limiting the alteration of the data due to out-of-focus effects and in minimizing the overestimation of the molecular brightness. In addition to a careful design of the cellular model, it gives reliable estimates of diffusion coefficients and oligomerization of GPI-anchored proteins, in steady-state conditions, at low expression levels, and in live, unperturbed cells.

The phasor approach to fluorescence lifetime imaging analysis.

Changing the data representation from the classical time delay histogram to the phasor representation provides a global view of the fluorescence decay at each pixel of an image. In the phasor representation we can easily recognize the presence of different molecular species in a pixel or the occurrence of fluorescence resonance energy transfer. The analysis of the fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) data in the phasor space is done observing clustering of pixels values in specific regions of the phasor plot rather than by fitting the fluorescence decay using exponentials. The analysis is instantaneous since is not based on calculations or nonlinear fitting. The phasor approach has the potential to simplify the way data are analyzed in FLIM, paving the way for the analysis of large data sets and, in general, making the FLIM technique accessible to the nonexpert in spectroscopy and data analysis.

Monomer dimer dynamics and distribution of GPI-anchored uPAR are determined by cell surface protein assemblies.

To search for functional links between glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) protein monomer-oligomer exchange and membrane dynamics and confinement, we studied urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) receptor (uPAR), a GPI receptor involved in the regulation of cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation. Using a functionally active fluorescent protein-uPAR in live cells, we analyzed the effect that extracellular matrix proteins and uPAR ligands have on uPAR dynamics and dimerization at the cell membrane. Vitronectin directs the recruitment of dimers and slows down the diffusion of the receptors at the basal membrane. The commitment to uPA-plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1-mediated endocytosis and recycling modifies uPAR diffusion and induces an exchange between uPAR monomers and dimers. This exchange is fully reversible. The data demonstrate that cell surface protein assemblies are important in regulating the dynamics and localization of uPAR at the cell membrane and the exchange of monomers and dimers. These results also provide a strong rationale for dynamic studies of GPI-anchored molecules in live cells at steady state and in the absence of cross-linker/clustering agents.

GR and HMGB1 interact only within chromatin and influence each other's residence time.

Most nuclear proteins reside on a specific chromatin site only for seconds or less. The hit-and-run model of transcriptional control maintains that transcription complexes are assembled in a stochastic fashion from freely diffusible proteins; this contrasts to models involving stepwise assembly of stable holo complexes. However, the chances of forming a productive complex improve if the binding of one factor promotes the binding of its interactors. We prove here that in living cells, the glucocorticoid receptor and HMGB1 interact only within chromatin and not in the nucleoplasm and decrease each other's mobility. Thus, the formation of a GR-HMGB1-chromatin complex is more likely than one would expect from independent binding to chromatin of GR and HMGB1. Remarkably, this complex is potentially stable, and its disassembly is effected by active, ATP-consuming processes. We propose that kinetic cooperativity among transcription factors in chromatin binding may be a common feature in transcription and DNA transactions.

Aggregation properties of a HPMA-camptothecin copolymer in isotonic solutions.

Copolymers of camptothecin (CPT) and [N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide] (HPMA) are novel anticancer drugs that show improved pharmacological profile in animal models as compared to the free drug CPT. We investigate here the aggregation properties of a HPMA-glycyl-6-aminohexanoyl-glycyl-CPT copolymer ( approximately 20,000 Da). The molecular size of HPMA-copolymer CPT is followed over 5 orders of magnitudes of concentration in isotonic buffer by measuring either the time resolved fluorescence anisotropy (FA) of CPT or the autocorrelation function of the light scattered by the copolymer. A detailed analysis of these data suggests the presence of elongated structures with axial ratio approximately 3 in the range 0.1-0.5 microg/ml and aggregates with association number higher than 2 in more concentrated solutions (up to 10 mg/ml). The binding affinity of HPMA-copolymer CPT for serum albumin is inversely dependent on the degree of aggregation of the copolymer. We also show that the copolymer concentration in plasma from mice treated with an active, non-toxic, dose of HPMA-copolymer CPT, decreases from 3 to 0.01 mg/ml in 72 h. In the same range of concentrations in vitro, we do not detect hydrophobic aggregates of polymers with high (>3) association number. Our study indicates that the circulating HPMA-copolymer CPT in mice should not undergo extensive aggregation and should interact with serum albumin more weakly than free CPT.

Camptothecin poly[n-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide] copolymers in antitopoisomerase-I tumor therapy: intratumor release and antitumor efficacy.

Soluble copolymers of camptothecin (CPT), based on poly[N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide] (pHPMA), were obtained by conjugation through the degradable spacers -Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly- or -Gly-6-aminohexanoyl-Gly-. We investigated to what extent passive accumulation and retention of hydroxypropyl methacrylamide copolymer of CPT (pHPMA-CPT) in tumors and modulation of the drug release influence efficacy. Release of CPT in vivo was detected by time-resolved phase-shift fluorescence imaging on tumor specimens, based on the evidence that free and bound drug had different fluorescence lifetimes in solution. HT-29 murine specimens, obtained at several times after treatment with (3)H-labeled free CPT, pHPMA-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-CPT, or pHPMA-Gly-6-aminohexanoyl-Gly-CPT, were either imaged for time-resolved phase-shift fluorescence or subjected to autoradiography. Phase shifts of CPT conjugates were equal or longer than those of free CPT, indicating the presence of both free and polymer-bound drug in the tumor, in agreement with autoradiograms. pHPMA-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-CPT underwent relevant intratumor hydrolysis during the first 24 h, whereas the hydrolysis of pHPMA-Gly-6-aminohexanoyl-Gly-CPT was slow. The latter showed antitumor activity at doses from 10 to 22.5 mg/kg/day against s.c. HT-29, A2780, M14, and A549 s.c. xenografts. Moreover, inhibition of tumor growth lasted for up to 73-88 days, and cures were observed on mice with orthotopic implanted HT-29; pHPMA-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-CPT was 2-fold more potent than pHPMA-Gly-6-aminohexanoyl-Gly-CPT but less tolerated. Our data suggest that the efficacy of pHPMA-CPT copolymers is related to their intratumor accumulation, and in vivo properties of releasing CPT by esterolytic and proteolytic degradation.

Nature of Interaction between basic fibroblast growth factor and the antiangiogenic drug 7,7-(carbonyl-bis[imino-N-methyl-4,2-pyrrolecarbonylimino[N-methyl-4,2-pyrrole]-carbonylimino])-bis-(1,3-naphtalene disulfonate). II. Removal of polar interactions affects protein folding.

Fibroblast growth factor-2 (basic FGF), a potent inducer of angiogenesis, and the naphthalene sulfonic distamycin A derivative, 7,7-(carbonyl-bis[imino-N-methyl-4,2-pyrrolecarbonylimino[N-methyl-4,2-pyrrole]-carbonylimino])-bis-(1,3-naphtalene disulfonate) (PNU145156E), which exhibits in vivo antiangiogenic activity, form a tight reversible (1:1) complex. PNU145156E binds to the heparin and the selenate-binding sites on bFGF. The cis bFGF-heparin (2:1) complex, essential for the activation of the angiogenic process, is thus prevented. The nature of the forces involved in bFGF:PNU145156E complex, using the wild-type and the K128Q, K138Q, K134Q, and K128Q-K138Q point mutated bFGFs was sought. Based on thermodynamic analysis of the complexation constants, protein temperature stability profiles by ultraviolet absorption, circular dichroism measurements, fluorescence Förster energy-transfer, and anisotropy studies, in harmony with the published x-ray crystallographic structure, the following molecular interactions are proposed: reduced coulombic interactions, hence loosening of the complex by the removal of charged polar groups from the bFGF-heparin binding cleft resulted in decreased binding constants and in a change in the binding mode from polar to nonpolar. Concomitantly, upon mutation, the protein was rendered more compact, less flexible, and less aqueously exposed compared with the wild type. These were further pronounced with the double mutant: weaker dominantly nonpolar protein-drug interactions were accompanied by conspicuous folding. With heparin, however, wild-type bFGF forms a tighter complex with a more compact structure.