Dysregulation of the kallikrein-kinin system in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with severe COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, a critical component of the kallikrein-kinin system. Its dysregulation may lead to increased vascular permeability and release of inflammatory chemokines. Interactions between the kallikrein-kinin and the coagulation system might further contribute to thromboembolic complications in COVID-19. METHODS: In this observational study, we measured plasma and tissue kallikrein hydrolytic activity, levels of kinin peptides, and myeloperoxidase (MPO)-DNA complexes as a biomarker for neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from patients with and without COVID-19. FINDINGS: In BAL fluid from patients with severe COVID-19 (n = 21, of which 19 were mechanically ventilated), we observed higher tissue kallikrein activity (18·2 pM [1·2-1535·0], median [range], n = 9 vs 3·8 [0·0-22·0], n = 11; p = 0·030), higher levels of the kinin peptide bradykinin-(1-5) (89·6 [0·0-2425·0], n = 21 vs 0·0 [0·0-374·0], n = 19, p = 0·001), and higher levels of MPO-DNA complexes (699·0 ng/mL [66·0-142621·0], n = 21 vs 70·5 [9·9-960·0], n = 19, p < 0·001) compared to patients without COVID-19. INTERPRETATION: Our observations support the hypothesis that dysregulation of the kallikrein-kinin system might occur in mechanically ventilated patients with severe pulmonary disease, which might help to explain the clinical presentation of patients with severe COVID-19 developing pulmonary oedema and thromboembolic complications. Therefore, targeting the kallikrein-kinin system should be further explored as a potential treatment option for patients with severe COVID-19. FUNDING: Research Foundation-Flanders (G0G4720N, 1843418N), KU Leuven COVID research fund.

Cytokine signalling in the beta-cell: a dual role for IFNgamma.

IFNgamma (interferon gamma), a cytokine typically secreted by infiltrating immune cells in insulitis in Type 1 diabetes, is by itself not detrimental to beta-cells, but, together with other cytokines, such as IL-1beta (interleukin 1beta) and TNFalpha (tumour necrosis factor alpha), or dsRNA (double-stranded RNA), it induces beta-cell apoptosis. The complex gene and protein networks that are altered by the combination of cytokines clearly point towards synergisms between these agents. IFNgamma acts mostly via JAK (Janus kinase) activation, with the transcription factors STAT-1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-1) and IRF-1 (IFNgamma regulatory factor-1) playing a central role in the downstream pathway. The study of mice with a disruption of these transcription factors has revealed a possible dual role for IFNgamma in beta-cell destruction by cytokines or dsRNA. We demonstrated that the absence of STAT-1 from beta-cells completely protects against IFNgamma+IL-1beta- and IFNgamma+dsRNA-mediated beta-cell death in vitro, whereas absence of IRF-1 does not prevent cytokine-induced beta-cell apoptosis. In vivo, a lack of the IRF-1 gene in pancreatic islets even promotes low-dose streptozotocin-induced diabetes, whereas lack of STAT-1 confers resistance against beta-cell death following low-dose streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Additionally, IRF-1(-/-) islets are more sensitive to PNF (primary islet non-function) after transplantation in spontaneously diabetic NOD (non-obese diabetic) mice, whereas STAT-1(-/-) islets are fully protected. Moreover, proteomic analysis of beta-cells exposed to IFNgamma or IFNgamma+IL-1beta confirms that very different pathways are activated by IFNgamma alone compared with the combination. We conclude that IFNgamma may play a dual role in immune-induced beta-cell destruction. Transcription factors drive this dual role, with STAT-1 driving beta-cell destruction and IRF-1 possibly playing a role in up-regulation of protective pathways induced by IFNgamma.

Deletion of STAT-1 pancreatic islets protects against streptozotocin-induced diabetes and early graft failure but not against late rejection.

OBJECTIVE: Exposure of beta-cells to inflammatory cytokines leads to apoptotic cell death through the activation of gene networks under the control of specific transcription factors, such as interferon-gamma-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1. We previously demonstrated that beta-cells lacking STAT-1 are resistant to cytokine-induced cell death in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of STAT-1 elimination on immune-mediated beta-cell destruction in vivo. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Multiple low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) was given to C57BL/6 mice after syngeneic STAT-1(-/-) or wild-type islet transplantation. STAT-1(-/-) and wild-type islets were also transplanted in alloxan-diabetic BALB/c and spontaneously diabetic nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. Additionally, mice were treated with interleukin (IL)-1 blockade (IL-1 receptor antagonist [IL-1ra]) and low-dose T-cell suppression (cyclosporine A [CsA]). RESULTS: When exposed to multiple low-dose STZ in an immune-competent host, STAT-1(-/-) islets were more resistant to destruction than wild-type islets (28 vs. 100% diabetes incidence, P < or = 0.05). STAT-1 deletion also protected allogeneic islet grafts against primary nonfunction in autoimmune NOD mice (0 vs. 17% using wild-type islets). However, no difference in survival time was observed. Additionally, treating recipients with IL-1ra and CsA prolonged graft survival in chemically diabetic BALB/c mice, whereas no difference was seen between STAT-1(-/-) and C57BL/6 grafts. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that STAT-1 is a key player in immune-mediated early beta-cell dysfunction and death. When considering the many effector mechanisms contributing to beta-cell death following islet transplantation, multiple combined interventions will be needed for prolongation of beta-cell survival in the autoimmune context of type 1 diabetes.

Disruption of the gamma-interferon signaling pathway at the level of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 prevents immune destruction of beta-cells.

beta-cells under immune attack are destroyed by the aberrant activation of key intracellular signaling cascades. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the contribution of the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1 pathway for beta-cell apoptosis by studying the sensitivity of beta-cells from STAT-1 knockout (-/-) mice to immune-mediated cell death in vitro and in vivo. Whole islets from STAT-1-/- mice were completely resistant to interferon (IFN)-gamma (studied in combination with interleukin [IL]-1beta)-mediated cell death (92 +/- 4% viable cells in STAT-1-/- mice vs. 56 +/- 3% viable cells in wild-type controls, P < or = 0.001) and had preserved insulin release after exposure to IL-1beta and IFN-gamma. Moreover, analysis of cell death in cytokine-exposed purified beta-cells confirmed that protection was due to absence of STAT-1 in the beta-cells themselves. Deficiency of STAT-1 in islets completely prevented cytokine-induced upregulation of IL-15, interferon inducible protein 10, and inducible nitric oxide synthase transcription but did not interfere with monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and macrophage inflammatory protein 3alpha expression. In vivo, STAT-1-/- mice were partially resistant to development of diabetes after multiple low-dose streptozotocin injections as reflected by mean blood glucose at 12 days after first injection (159 +/- 28 vs. 283 +/- 81 mg/dl in wild-type controls, P < or = 0.05) and diabetes incidence at the end of the follow-up period (39 vs. 73% in wild-type controls, P < or = 0.05). In conclusion, the present results indicate that STAT-1 is a crucial transcription factor in the process of IFN-gamma-mediated beta-cell death and the subsequent development of immune-mediated diabetes.

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulates expression of chemokines and cytokines in pancreatic islets: implications for prevention of diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice.

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25-(OH)(2)D(3)) is an immune modulator that prevents experimental autoimmune diseases. Receptors for 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) are present in pancreatic beta-cells, the target of an autoimmune assault in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vivo and in vitro effects of 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) on beta-cell gene expression and death and correlate these findings to in vivo diabetes development in NOD mice. When female NOD mice were treated with 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) (5 microg/kg per 2 d), there was a decrease in islet cytokine and chemokine expression, which was accompanied by less insulitis. Complementing these findings, we observed that exposure to 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) in three cell systems INS-1(E) cell line, fluorescence-activated cell sorting purified rat beta-cells, and NOD-severe combined immunodeficient islets) suppressed IP-10 and IL-15 expression in the beta-cell itself but did not prevent cytokine-induced beta-cell death. This 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3)-induced inhibition of chemokine expression in beta-cells was associated with a decreased diabetes incidence in some treatment windows targeting early insulitis. Thus, although a short and early intervention with 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) (3-14 wk of age) reduced diabetes incidence (35 vs. 58%, P < or = 0.05), a late intervention (from 14 wk of age, when insulitis is present) failed to prevent disease. Of note, only early and long-term treatment (3-28 wk of age) prevented disease to a major extent (more than 30% decrease in diabetes incidence). We conclude that 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) monotherapy is most effective in preventing diabetes in NOD mice when applied early. This beneficial effect of 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) is associated with decreased chemokine and cytokine expression by the pancreatic islets.