Legumes and common beans in sustainable diets: nutritional quality, environmental benefits, spread and use in food preparations.

In recent decades, scarcity of available resources, population growth and the widening in the consumption of processed foods and of animal origin have made the current food system unsustainable. High-income countries have shifted towards food consumption patterns which is causing an increasingly process of environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources, with the increased incidence of malnutrition due to excess (obesity and non-communicable disease) and due to chronic food deprivation. An urgent challenge is, therefore, to move towards more healthy and sustainable eating choices and reorientating food production and distribution to obtain a human and planetary health benefit. In this regard, legumes represent a less expensive source of nutrients for low-income countries, and a sustainable healthier option than animal-based proteins in developed countries. Although legumes are the basis of many traditional dishes worldwide, and in recent years they have also been used in the formulation of new food products, their consumption is still scarce. Common beans, which are among the most consumed pulses worldwide, have been the focus of many studies to boost their nutritional properties, to find strategies to facilitate cultivation under biotic/abiotic stress, to increase yield, reduce antinutrients contents and rise the micronutrient level. The versatility of beans could be the key for the increase of their consumption, as it allows to include them in a vast range of food preparations, to create new formulations and to reinvent traditional legume-based recipes with optimal nutritional healthy characteristics.

In order to lower the antinutritional activity of serine protease inhibitors, we need to understand their role in seed development.

Proteases, including serine proteases, are involved in the entire life cycle of plants. Proteases are controlled by protease inhibitors (PI) to limit any uncontrolled or harmful protease activity. The role of PIs in biotic and abiotic stress tolerance is well documented, however their role in various other plant processes has not been fully elucidated. Seed development is one such area that lack detailed work on the function of PIs despite the fact that this is a key process in the life cycle of the plant. Serine protease inhibitors (SPI) such as the Bowman-Birk inhibitors and Kunitz-type inhibitors, are abundant in legume seeds and act as antinutrients in humans and animals. Their role in seed development is not fully understood and present an interesting research target. Whether lowering the levels and activity of PIs, in order to lower the anti-nutrient levels in seed will affect the development of viable seed, remains an important question. Studies on the function of SPI in seed development are therefore required. In this Perspective paper, we provide an overview on the current knowledge of seed storage proteins, their degradation as well as on the serine protease-SPI system in seeds and what is known about the consequences when this system is modified. We discuss areas that require investigation. This includes the identification of seed specific SPIs; screening of germplasms, to identify plants with low seed inhibitor content, establishing serine protease-SPI ratios and lastly a focus on molecular techniques that can be used to modify seed SPI activity.

Antinutritional factors, nutritional improvement, and future food use of common beans: A perspective.

Common bean seeds are an excellent source of protein as well as of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds reducing, when in the diet, the risks of diseases. The presence of bioactive compounds with antinutritional properties (e.g., phytic acid, lectins, raffinosaccharides, protease inhibitors) limits, however, the bean's nutritional value and its wider use in food preparations. In the last decades, concerted efforts have been, therefore, made to develop new common bean genotypes with reduced antinutritional compounds by exploiting the natural genetic variability of common bean and also applying induced mutagenesis. However, possible negative, or positive, pleiotropic effects due to these modifications, in terms of plant performance in response to stresses or in the resulting technological properties of the developed mutant genotypes, have yet not been thoroughly investigated. The purpose of the perspective paper is to first highlight the current advances, which have been already made in mutant bean characterization. A view will be further provided on future research directions to specifically explore further advantages and disadvantages of these bean mutants, their potential use in innovative foods and representing a valuable genetic reservoir of combinations to assess the true functional role of specific seed bioactive components directly in the food matrix.

Extractable and Non-Extractable Antioxidants Composition in the eBASIS Database: A Key Tool for Dietary Assessment in Human Health and Disease Research.

The antioxidant properties of foods are crucial in nutrition, food chemistry, and medicine studies but are often underestimated, with significant amounts of bioactive compounds containing physiological and biochemical properties remaining in the residue from extraction as non-extractable antioxidants. Over the last decade, extractable and non-extractable compounds have become key in the evaluation/determination of the antioxidant properties of food matrices because of their relevance in human health. This has led to the need to include extractable and non-extractable antioxidants in comprehensive and harmonized food composition databases for a wide range of applications within research, food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical areas. Additionally, the databases are invaluable as part of the health claims application process. eBASIS, (Bioactive Substances in Food Information System) a comprehensive database containing quality-evaluated scientific data, covering the composition of bioactive compounds present in foods, has flexible structures, allowing it to be extended to include newly emerging data on extractable and non-extractable compounds. Search criteria were developed and defined for compiling suitable peer-reviewed literature. Data quality assessment methods were established for the addition of composition data and antioxidant activity, with a focus on various parameters including: the extraction procedure, the antioxidant measurements, the expression of results. A total of 437 quality-evaluated datapoints on the composition of extractable and/or non-extractable compounds were entered into the database. This database update represents one of the first examples of building a database dedicated to antioxidant properties. This expansion of eBASIS provides a novel and unique tool for nutritionists, dietitians, researchers to use for a wide range of applications, such as dietary assessment, exposure studies and epidemiological studies, and may contribute to an increase in high-bioactive food consumption by consumers.

Lignans: Quantitative Analysis of the Research Literature.

The current study provides a comprehensive overview and analysis of the lignan literature. Data for the current study were extracted from the electronic Web of Science Core Collection database via the search string TOPIC = ("lignan*") and processed by the VOSviewer software. The search yielded 10,742 publications. The ratio of original articles to reviews was 14.6:1. Over 80% of the analyzed papers have been published since the year 2000 and nearly 50% since the year 2010. Many of the publications were focused on pharmacology, chemistry, and plant sciences. The United States and Asian countries, such as China, Japan, South Korea, and India, were the most productive producers of lignan publications. Among the 5 most productive institutions was the University of Helsinki in Finland, the country that ranked 9th. Nineteen journals collectively published 3,607 lignan publications and were considered as core journals. Their impact factor did not correlate with the proportion of uncited papers. Highly cited publications usually mentioned phytoestrogen, isoflavone, daidzein, enterodiol, enterolactone, equol, genistein, and isoflavonoid. Cancer (e.g., breast cancer), cardiovascular disease, and antioxidation were the major themes. Clinical trials were estimated to contribute to 0.2-1.1% of the analyzed body of literature, so more of them should be conducted in the future to substantiate the beneficial effects and optimal dose of lignan intake in humans. Moreover, researchers can refer to these findings for future research directions and collaborations.

Antioxidant Properties of Four Commonly Consumed Popular Italian Dishes.

Four popular dishes belonging to Italian cuisine and widely consumed in the country were experimentally prepared in a dedicated lab-kitchen following a validated and standardized protocol. This study provides their antioxidant properties evaluating the contribution of extractable and non-extractable bioactive compounds, and identifying the assessment of interactions between their natural active compounds and the food matrix. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) values in aqueous-organic extract ranged from the highest antioxidant activity in torta di mele (10.72 µmol/g d.m.) to that in besciamella (2.47 µmol/g d.m.); in residue, pasta alla carbonara reached the highest value (73.83 µmol/g d.m.) following by that in pasta alla amatriciana (68.64 µmol/g d.m.). Total polyphenol content (TPC) ranged in aqueous-organic extracts between 36.50 and 64.28 mg/100 g d.m. and in residue from 425.84 to 1747.35 mg/100 g d.m. Our findings may contribute to the updating of the Italian Food Composition Database, by providing for the first time a value for the antioxidant properties. This could contribute to encourage the consumption of recipes rich in key nutrients and bioactive molecules. This information is useful and important for determining the association between diet and a healthy status.

Development of Dietary Supplement Label Database in Italy: Focus of FoodEx2 Coding.

The sector of food supplements is certainly varied and growing: an ever wider offer of new products is launched on the market every year. This is reflected in new reorganization of drug companies and new marketing strategies, in the adoption of new production technologies with resulting changes in dietary supplements regulation. In this context, information on composition reported in labels of selected dietary supplements was collected and updated for the development of a Dietary Supplement Label Database according to products' availability on the Italian market and also including items consumed in the last Italian Dietary Survey. For each item, a code was assigned following the food classification and description system FoodEx2, revision 2. A total of 558 products have been entered into the database at present, trying to give a uniform image and representation of the major classes of food supplements, and 82 descriptors have been compiled. Various suggestions on how the number of FoodEx2 system descriptors could be expanded were noted during the compilation of the database and the coding procedure, which are presented in this article. Limits encountered in compiling the database are represented by the changes in the formulation of products on the market and therefore by the need for a constant database update. The database here presented can be a useful tool in clinical trials, dietary plans, and pharmacological programs.

Dietary Lignans: Definition, Description and Research Trends in Databases Development.

The study aims to communicate the current status regarding the development and management of the databases on dietary lignans; within the phytochemicals, the class of the lignan compounds is of increasing interest because of their potential beneficial properties, i.e., anticancerogenic, antioxidant, estrogenic, and antiestrogenic activities. Furthermore, an introductory overview of the main characteristics of the lignans is described here. In addition to the importance of the general databases, the role and function of a food composition database is explained. The occurrence of lignans in food groups is described; the initial construction of the first lignan databases and their inclusion in harmonized databases at national and/or European level is presented. In this context, some examples of utilization of specific databases to evaluate the intake of lignans are reported and described.

From Plant Compounds to Botanicals and Back: A Current Snapshot.

This work aims at giving an updated picture of the strict interaction between main plant biologically active compounds and botanicals. The main features of the emerging class of dietary supplements, the botanicals, are highlighted. Focus is also on the definition of actual possibilities of study approach and research strategies. Examples of innovative directions are given: assessment of interaction of bioactive compounds, chemometrics and the new goal of biorefineries. Current models of existing databases, such as plant metabolic pathways, food composition, bioactive compounds, dietary supplements, and dietary markers, are described as usable tools for health research. The need for categorization of botanicals as well as for the implementation of specific and dedicated databases emerged, based on both analytical data and collected data taken from literature throughout a harmonized and standardized approach for the evaluation of an adequate dietary intake.

Food Composition Databases: Considerations about Complex Food Matrices.

Nowadays, many countries have their own national Food Composition Databases, whose continuous updating allows the inclusion of a large number of foods, reflecting the food habits of the population and the growing number of foods on the market in the best way possible. Therefore, particular attention should be directed to the study not only of individual foods or food components but also of the nutritional characteristics of dishes, meals and diets, as they are really consumed. Recently, a reviewed sensitivity in Europe towards the implementation of standardized procedures for generating reliable composition data for composite dishes has been carried out. Although direct chemical analysis is the most accurate method to determine food composition, the nutrient content of complex matrices and composite dishes is often calculated from the nutrient contents of the individual ingredients, considering the different thermal treatments and using some preparation factors. In this context, this paper aims to give an updated picture on Food Composition Databases; in particular, their application regarding complex matrices is examined together with the need to optimize their calculated nutritional values. Results obtained by this calculation should almost always be observed as approximations.

Nutritional composition and antioxidant properties of traditional Italian dishes.

This work aims at evaluating the main nutrients (proximate, minerals), their contribution for Dietary Reference Values in Italian population, and the antioxidant properties of some popular dishes prepared in a dedicated lab-kitchen: spaghetti alle vongole, pomodori al riso, gateau di patate, carciofi alla romana, pan di Spagna. Results showed that nutrient contents and energy value varied extensively because of the variety and the nature of ingredients in the analyzed dishes, and thus defined different daily nutrient intakes and their association with health effects. A serving portion of either spaghetti alle vongole or carciofi alla romana showed to contribute to the daily nutritional recommendations respectively, with an appreciable percentage of available carbohydrates (30-22%) and a considerable content of dietary fibre (91%). Gateau di patate was particularly rich in calcium (343mg), both contributing 34% of the recommended intake, in addition to appreciable content of phosphorus and zinc. With regards to spaghetti alle vongole, pomodori al riso, gateau di patate and pan di Spagna, extractable polyphenols contributed less than 15% to total antioxidant activity, and hydrolysable polyphenols give a major contribution; carciofi alla romana showed an inverse trend. Findings provide an important contribution to the update of Italian Food Composition Databases.