Stream food webs in tropical mountains rely on allochthonous carbon regardless of land use.

The relative importance of allochthonous and autochthonous carbon (C) as sources of energy for tropical stream food webs remains an open question. Allochthonous C might be the main energy source for small and shaded forest streams, while autochthonous C is more likely to fuel food webs draining land uses with less dense vegetation. We studied food webs in cloud forest streams draining watersheds with forests, coffee plantations, and pastures. Our goal was to assess the effects of those land uses on the C source and structure of stream food webs. The study took place in tropical montane streams in La Antigua Watershed, in eastern Mexico. We selected three streams per land use and sampled biofilm and leaf litter as the main food resources, and macroinvertebrates and aquatic vertebrates from different trophic guilds. Samples were analyzed for δ13C and δ15N isotopes. Using a Bayesian mixing model, we estimated the proportional assimilation of autochthonous and allochthonous carbon by each guild. We found that consumers were mostly using allochthonous C in all streams, regardless of watershed land use. Our findings indicate that montane cloud forest streams are dominated by allochthony even in watersheds dominated by pastures. Abundant precipitation in this life zone might facilitate the movement of allochthonous C into streams. While food webs of streams from coffee plantations and pastures also rely on allochthonous resources, other impacts do result in important changes in stream functioning.

Mangrove and Freshwater Wetland Conservation Through Carbon Offsets: A Cost-Benefit Analysis for Establishing Environmental Policies.

Mexico has extensive coastal wetlands (4,243,137 ha), and one of its most important sites is the Alvarado Lagoon System, located in the Papaloapan River Basin on the Gulf of Mexico. The land cover dedicated to livestock and sugarcane has increased: by 25 % in 2005 and 50 % in 2010, with a loss of wetland vegetation and the carbon that it stores. We found that the Net Present Value of mangrove carbon offsets profit is equal to $5822.71, that of broad-leaved marshes is $7958.86, cattail marshes $5250.33, and forested wetlands $8369.41 per hectare, during a 30-year-carbonoffset contract. However, the opportunity cost from conserving wetland instead of growing sugarcane is positive according to REDD+ methodology, e.g., broad-leaved marsh conservation ranged from $6.73 to $20 USD/t CO2e, that of cattail marshes from $12.20 to $32.65 USD/t CO2e, and forested wetlands from $7.15 to $20.60 USD/t CO2e, whereas the opportunity cost between conservation and livestock was negative, it means that conservation is more profitable. The cost-benefit analysis for assessing investment projects from a governmental perspective is useful to determine the viability of conserving coastal wetlands through carbon offset credits. It also shows why in some areas it is not possible to conserve ecosystems due to the opportunity cost of changing from one economic activity (livestock and sugarcane) to carbon offsets for protecting wetlands. Furthermore, it allows for a comparison of carbon markets and assessment in terms of REDD+ and its methods for determining the social cost per ton of carbon avoided.

Effect of the economic crisis on the production of immunology patents managed through the Patent Cooperation Treaty agreement from 2004-2011.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the evolution of patents in immunology, as a result of research and innovation in the years 2004-2011. DESIGN: The search for patents published internationally in immunology was made by using the SCOPUSTM database. SCOPUS gives information about over 23 million patents. The extracted data from patents were: inventors and applicants; their nationalities; sections, classes and subclasses of the International Patent Classification. PARTICIPANTS: 89 countries. SETTING: Data have been obtained from the database SCOPUS. It has been used for the international patent classification. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Patents by country, Productive sectors, Productive areas. RESULTS: A total of 17,281 patents were applied for immunology during 2004-2011 of which 16,811 were from 30 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development countries, and 5326 from 28 countries in the European Union. These patents were granted in 89 countries and 13,699 of them were submitted by researchers from only one country. Private entities applied for 62.45% of all patents, universities 17.48%, hospitals 3.40% and public research organisations and private applicants applied for the rest. The university that made more applications was the University of California with 315 and the company was Genentech Inc. (US) with 302. The reduction in the number of applications of international patents in all disciplines of science also affected the area of immunology. CONCLUSIONS: Collaboration in immunology between universities, companies and hospitals is hard because their interests are different. It is shown in patent applications that the majority of patents in immunology are applied for by only one entity. Patents in immunology are developed, mainly, in aspects such as medical preparations, peptides, mutation or genetic engineering, therapeutic activity of chemical compounds and analysing materials by determining their chemical or physical properties.

Interleukin-6 and other soluble factors in peritoneal fluid and endometriomas and their relation to pain and aromatase expression.

Immunological changes and gene expression anomalies are involved in the etiopathophysiology of endometriosis, although how these alterations are connected is not well established. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between levels of immune cell populations, cytokines and CA-125 in peritoneal fluid (PF) and 'chocolate' cyst fluid (CF), and aromatase expression in endometriotic tissue, as well as to investigate any association with symptoms or recurrence of the disease. Eutopic and ectopic endometrium, CF and PF were collected from 84 women with endometriomas and 24 with benign non-functioning ovarian tumors undergoing radical or conservative surgery. Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine aromatase expression. PF cell populations were assessed by flow cytometry, and CF and PF levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-13, IL-17 and CA-125 were quantified by ELISA. These parameters were compared with aromatase expression, symptoms and recurrence of the disease. IL-6 levels in PF were higher in patients with endometriosis than in patients with benign non-functioning ovarian cysts, and correlated positively to dysmenorrhea and pelvic pain in the first group. An association between PF IL-8 and CA-125 was also observed in endometriosis. Aromatase positive patients showed higher levels of PF CA-125 and CF IL-17. Recurrence of symptoms or endometrioma occurred sooner in patients having higher IL-6 or IL-8 levels in CF, respectively. These findings suggest an association of IL-6 with pain in endometriosis, as well as a relationship between cytokine expression and recurrence of the disease. However no clear relationship between aromatase expression and other parameters was found.

The effect of intraperitoneal interleukin-2 on surgically induced endometriosis in rats.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of interleukin-2 (IL-2) on an experimental model of endometriosis. STUDY DESIGN: Double blind and randomized experimental prospective placebo-controlled study. Experimental endometriosis was induced in 66 three-month-old female Wistar rats, by auto-transplanting fragments of endometrium to the peritoneum. After four weeks, the size of each implant was measured in millimeters by laparotomy (L2), and animals were randomly distributed for intraperitoneal administration of human-IL-2, rat-IL-2 or placebo. Four weeks later, the implants were measured (L3) and a second dose was given. After four weeks, endometriosis size was evaluated again (L4). RESULTS: We found a reduction of experimental endometriosis at L3 that was only significant in IL-2 treated groups: 20.1% and 30.3% with human-IL-2 and rat-IL-2, respectively (p<0.001 with respect to L2 size), versus a non-significant reduction of 9.0% found in placebo group, but the differences were not statistically significant between groups. The decrease after a second dose (L4) was: 49.8%, 41.8% and 11.4% with human-IL-2, rat-IL-2 and placebo, respectively (p<0.001 in IL-2 groups versus L2 and L3, and p<0.05 in both groups versus placebo at L4). CONCLUSION: Intraperitoneal administration of IL-2 reduces experimental endometriosis, and this effect is similar using rat-IL-2 or human IL-2 (non specie-specific effect).

Intraperitoneal recombinant interleukin-2 activates leukocytes in rat endometriosis.

The aim of this double-blinded study was to determine changes in leukocyte populations in blood, peritoneal lavage fluid, eutopic and ectopic endometrium after treatment with recombinant rat interleukin-2 (IL-2) using an in vivo experimental model of rat endometriosis. The in vivo model involved transplanting four square fragments of autologous endometrium onto the inner surface of the abdominal wall in 20 Wistar rats. The control group was constituted by 20 sham-operated rats. Both groups were randomly treated (1-month interval treatment) with 2 intraperitoneal doses of glucose solution (5%) that did or did not contain recombinant IL-2, and animals were sacrificed 4 weeks after the last dose of treatment. Blood and peritoneal lavage were obtained during the initial and final laparotomy, whereas eutopic and ectopic endometrium were collected at the end of the experiment. Endometriotic implants were measured in each laparotomy to determine any change in size. Leukocyte populations were analyzed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy. Cytometric results were similar in blood and peritoneal lavage. CD25+ and natural killer (NK) cell levels in peripheral blood were lower in rats with endometriosis treated with IL-2, whereas NK cells increased in lavage compared to placebo group. The percentage of macrophages and dendritic cells in blood were higher in all rats treated with IL-2, as well as peritoneal dendritic cells. Implant size of these rats decreased significantly, showing a greater number of activated lymphocytes, macrophages, NK and dendritic cells inside them. In conclusion, recombinant IL-2 induced recruitment of activated leukocytes into endometriotic-like foci, and this was related to a reduction of the implant size, suggesting potential effectiveness of IL-2 as an immunomodulatory agent in this pathology.

Changes in cytokine levels of patients with ovarian endometriosis after treatment with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue, ultrasound-guided drainage, and intracystic recombinant interleukin-2.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the changes in cytokine levels from women with endometriomas who are treated with recombinant interleukin-2 after ultrasound-guided cyst aspiration, and to relate these changes to the clinical results observed in these patients. DESIGN: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENT(S): Twenty-four women with endometriosis-related symptoms and endometriomas. INTERVENTION(S): Endometriomas in women receiving GnRH analogues and undergoing transvaginal ultrasound-guided cyst aspiration were injected with dextrose that did or did not contain recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2). Serum samples were collected before and after treatment. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Serum samples were analyzed by enzyme immunoassay to determine the levels of IL-1beta, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and IL-17. RESULT(S): The cytokine levels after treatment with GnRH analogues and recombinant IL-2 were similar to the initial levels. The patients receiving GnRH analogues without IL-2 had higher IL-1, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-13 levels. Good clinical results were observed in 90% of the patients in the first group but in only 30% of the second one. CONCLUSION(S): Administration of recombinant IL-2 intracystically decreases cytokine production in women with endometriomas. These results have important implications for the design of future therapies based on immunomodulation, such as using higher or repeated doses of recombinant IL-2 in the cysts.

Efecto de diferentes manejos pecuarios sobre el suelo y la vegetación en humedales transformados a pastizales / Impact produced by different cattle ranching practices on soil and vegetation from wetlands turned into pastures

La ganadería impacta negativamente los humedales debido a que, por lo general, modifica el hidroperíodo, introduce especies no nativas y emplea una carga ganadera elevada. Esta actividad productiva es la principal del estado de Veracruz, en el Golfo de México. este trabajo estudia el efecto tanto del uso como del abandono de diferentes prácticas de manejo pecuario (modificación de la hidrología, introducción de especies no nativas y pastoreo) sobre la vegetación y el suelo, en humedales herbáceos transformados a pastizales cultivados en esa región. Se analizaron en la época de secas variables edáficas tales como pH, C orgánico, N total, P extraíble, concentraciones de K, Na, Ca y Mg iónicos, y la capacidad de retención de humedad del suelo. Se cuantificó la biomasa aérea y subterránea, riqueza de especies y reemplazo de especies con respecto al humedal seminatural, en tres épocas (nortes, secas, y lluvias). Las prácticas de manejo ganadero en los humedales cambian la composición de especies y disminuyen la riqueza. La exclusión del ganado aumenta la riqueza en los primeros años y luego ésta disminuye con el tiempo; sin embargo, no se mantienen las especies propias del humedal. La modificación de la hidrología disminuye el período de inundación, aumenta el pH, cambia la disponibilidad de nutrientes y disminuye la capacidad de retención de humedad del suelo, y además disminuye la asignación de biomasa a la parte subterránea. La introducción de especies no nativas también cambia la disponibilidad de nutrientes y la riqueza de especies. Por otra parte, una elevada carga animal disminuye la capacidad de retención de humedad y modifica la composición química del suelo. Estos aspectos deben ser considerados antes de implementar prácticas de manejo que pueden alterar el funcionamiento de estos ecosistemas

Insulin-secreting cells derived from stem cells: clinical perspectives, hypes and hopes.

Diabetes is a degenerative disease that results from the selective destruction of pancreatic beta-cells. These cells are responsible for insulin production and secretion in response to increases in circulating concentrations of nutrients, such as glucose, fatty acids and amino acids. This degenerative disease can be treated by the transplantation of differentiated islets obtained from cadaveric donors, according to a new surgical intervention developed as Edmonton protocol. Compared to the classical double transplant kidney-pancreas, this new protocol presents several advantages, concerning to the nature of the implant, immunosuppressive drug regime and the surgical procedure itself. However, the main problem to face in any islet transplantation program is the scarcity of donor pancreases and the low yield of islets isolated (very often around 50%) from each pancreas. Nevertheless, transplanted patients presented no adverse effects and no progression of diabetic complications. In the search of new cell sources for replacement trials, stem cells from embryonic and adult origins represent a key alternative. In order to become a realistic clinical issue transplantation of insulin-producing cells derived from stem cells, it needs to overcome multiple experimental obstacles. The first one is to develop a protocol that may allow obtaining a pure population of functional insulin-secreting cells as close as possible to the pancreatic beta-cell. The second problem should concern to the transplantation itself, considering issues related to immune rejection, tumour formation, site for implant, implant survival, and biosafety mechanisms. Although transplantation of bioengineered cells is still far in time, experience accumulated in islet transplantation protocols and in experiments with appropriate animal models will give more likely the clues to address this question in the future.

Use of intraperitoneal interferon alpha-2b therapy after conservative surgery for endometriosis and postoperative medical treatment with depot gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog: a randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the possible therapeutic effects of interferon alpha-2b left in the peritoneum after surgery, followed by or not followed by treatment with GnRH analogs. DESIGN: A prospective, randomized clinical trial. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENT(S): Fifty-two infertile patients with moderate or severe endometriosis. INTERVENTION(S): Laparotomic conservative surgery and either interferon alpha-2b or saline alone left in the pouch of Douglas followed by administration of either GnRH analogs depot or oral indomethacin with transvaginal echography and analysis of CA-125, immunoglobulins, and lymphocyte populations. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Recurrence of endometriosis was considered clinically, echographically, and laparoscopically. RESULT(S): Recurrence of endometriosis in four cases without interferon (15.4%) versus 11 patients (42.3%) with interferon alpha-2b. Life table analysis showed significant differences between the groups with and without interferon 21 months after conservative surgery. There were no differences in the recurrence between the groups with or without GnRH analogs. Likewise, there were no significant changes in immunoglobulins and lymphocyte populations among patients with and without recurrence of endometriosis. The patients that received GnRH analogs depot showed a decrease in the number of CD16 and an increase of CD11b cells after treatment. CONCLUSION(S): The use of interferon alpha-2b within the peritoneal cavity after conservative surgery may be inappropriate because it increased later recurrence of endometriosis. The postoperative treatment with GnRH analogs did not significantly reduce the recurrence rate. Immunoglobulins and lymphocyte populations did not change in relation to the recurrence of endometriosis.

Study of the physical meaning of the binding parameters involved in effector-target conjugation using monoclonal antibodies against adhesion molecules and cholera toxin.

In earlier work, we established a mathematical model to characterize the binding properties of cytotoxic cells to target cells. These properties can be described by the values of the maximum effector and target conjugate frequencies, alpha(max) and beta(max), respectively, and the dissociation constant of the conjugates formed, K(D) (Garcia-Peñarrubia, P., Cabrera, L., Alvarez, R., and Galvez, J., J. Immunol. Methods 155 (1992) 133). Here, we address the problem of exploring the physical meaning of these parameters and their relationships with cytotoxicity. With this purpose, conjugation between a human leukemic NK cell line (NKL) and K562 tumor cells has been studied from binding isotherms obtained from data of effector (alpha) and target (beta) conjugate frequencies measured by flow cytometry analysis at different effector-to-target ratios (R). The results have been compared to those obtained after target cells treatment with monoclonal antibodies recognizing adhesion molecules ICAM-1 (CD54) and LFA-3 (CD58) (which are able to block some of the receptors implicated in conjugation), as well as with cholera toxin (CTX) that can modify the state of affinity of some adhesion molecules such as LFA-1 (CD11a/CD18). The results show that: (1) blocking adhesion receptors CD54 and CD58 on the surface of target cells leads to a significant decrease of alpha(max) and beta(max), indicating that these parameters are related to the density of expression of receptors implicated in effector-target adhesion; (2) treatment of effector cells with CTX induced an increase of K(D), demonstrating that this parameter is associated with the effector-target affinity of the system; and (3) parallel experiments of conjugation and cytotoxicity showed that effector-target affinity and saturability influence the cytotoxic activity of the effector population.

Embryotoxicity of peritoneal fluid in women with endometriosis. Its relation with cytokines and lymphocyte populations.

BACKGROUND: The goals of the present work were to study the embryotoxic effects of peritoneal fluid (PF) in women with or without endometriosis, and to relate any embryotoxicity to the severity of endometriosis, infertility or achievement of pregnancy, cytokine concentrations and lymphocyte populations. METHODS: Sixty-six consecutive women of reproductive age, 54 with endometriosis (21 infertile) and 12 infertile without endometriosis, and another 12 fertile women as control group, were included in this study. They all underwent laparoscopy or laparotomy in the second half of the cycle, and PF was collected from the pouch of Douglas. The embryotoxicity of the PF was assessed by means of a mouse embryo assay, and expressed as the number of embryos that did not reach blastocyst stage. Cytokines and lymphocyte populations present in PF were also studied and correlated with embryotoxicity. RESULTS: PF embryotoxicity was increased in women with endometriosis, but there was little correlation with the severity of the disease. However, although a clear relationship to the presence of infertility was not found, embryotoxicity appeared to be lower in those infertile patients with endometriosis who later became pregnant. We found a significant increase in embryotoxicity in the presence of high cytokine concentrations, especially with interleukin-6, and less so with interleukin-8 (P < 0.05). No good correlation was observed with lymphocyte populations, but CD56 (NK) cells were significantly increased in the PF of women with endometriosis. In general, the correlations for embryotoxicity were better when PF was diluted at 20% (91.4 +/- 17 versus 68.1 +/- 31, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that alteration in the production of cytokines in the PF, especially IL-6, besides contributing to the endometriosis and its evolution, probably increases embryotoxicity. However, no correlation was found between the latter and associated infertility.