The relationship between self-reported sleep disturbance and polysomnography in individuals with traumatic brain injury.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To characterize sleep architecture and self-reported sleep quality, fatigue and daytime sleepiness in individuals with TBI. Possible relationships between sleep architecture and self-reported sleep quality, fatigue and daytime sleepiness were examined. METHODS: Forty-four community-dwelling adults with TBI completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Multidimensional Assessment of Fatigue (MAF) and Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). They underwent two nights of in-laboratory nocturnal polysomnography (NPSG). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients and hierarchical linear regression was used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Based on the PSQI cut-off score of ≥ 10, 22 participants were characterized as poor sleepers. Twenty-seven participants met criteria for clinically significant fatigue as measured by the GFI of the MAF. Fourteen participants met criteria for excessive daytime sleepiness as measured by the ESS. Poor sleep quality was associated with poor sleep efficiency, short duration of stage 2 sleep and long duration of rapid eye movement sleep. There was little-to-no association between high levels of fatigue or daytime sleepiness with NPSG sleep parameters. CONCLUSIONS: A high proportion of the sample endorsed poor sleep quality, fatigue and daytime sleepiness. Those who reported poorer sleep quality evidenced a shorter proportion of time spent in stage 2 sleep. These findings suggest that disruptions in stage 2 sleep might underlie the symptoms of sleep disturbance experienced following TBI.

Comparison of cognitive behavioral therapy and supportive psychotherapy for the treatment of depression following traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy of 2 different interventions (cognitive behavioral therapy [CBT] and supportive psychotherapy [SPT]) to treat post-traumatic brain injury (TBI) depression. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of 77 community-dwelling individuals with a TBI, and a diagnosis of depression. Participants were randomized into treatment conditions either CBT or SPT and received up to 16 sessions of individual psychotherapy. MEASURES: Participants completed the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV and self-report measures of depression (Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition), anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), perceived social support (Interpersonal Support Evaluation List), stressful life events (Life Experiences Survey), and quality of life (QOL) before beginning and immediately following treatment. RESULTS: No significant differences were found at baseline between CBT and SPT groups on demographic factors (sex, age, education, race, and time since injury) or baseline measures of depression, anxiety, participation, perceived social support, stressful life events, or QOL. Analyses of variance revealed significant time effects for the Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and QOL outcome measures but no group effects. Intention-to-treat mixed effects analyses did not find any significant difference in patterns of scores of the outcome measures between the CBT and SPT intervention groups. CONCLUSIONS: Both forms of psychotherapy were efficacious in improving diagnoses of depression and anxiety and reducing depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that in this sample of individuals with TBI, CBT was not more effective in treating depression than SPT, though further research is needed with larger sample sizes to identify different components of these interventions that may be effective with different TBI populations. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00211835.

Systematic review of interventions for fatigue after traumatic brain injury: a NIDRR traumatic brain injury model systems study.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review of the evidence on interventions for posttraumatic brain injury fatigue (PTBIF). METHODS: Systematic searches of multiple databases for peer-reviewed studies published in English on interventions targeting PTBIF as a primary or secondary outcome through January 22, 2014. Reference sections were also reviewed to identify additional articles. Articles were rated using the 2011 American Academy of Neurology Classification of Evidence Scheme for therapeutic studies. RESULTS: The searches yielded 1526 articles. Nineteen articles met all inclusion criteria: 4 class I, 1 class II/III, 10 class III, and 4 class IV. Only 5 articles examined fatigue as a primary outcome. Interventions were pharmacological and psychological or involved physical activity, bright blue light, electroencephalographic biofeedback, or electrical stimulation. Only 2 interventions (modafinil and cognitive behavioral therapy with fatigue management) were evaluated in more than 1 study. CONCLUSIONS: Despite areas of promise, there is insufficient evidence to recommend or contraindicate any treatments of PTBIF. Modafinil is not likely to be effective for PTBIF. Piracetam may reduce it, as may bright blue light. Cognitive behavioral therapy deserves additional study. High-quality research incorporating appropriate definition and measurement of fatigue is required to explore the potential benefits of promising interventions, evaluate fatigue treatments shown to be effective in other populations, and develop new interventions for PTBIF.

Screening for traumatic brain injury: findings and public health implications.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of a series of projects that used a structured self-report screening tool in diverse settings and samples to screen for lifetime history of traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Diverse community settings. PARTICIPANTS: Homeless persons (n = 111), individuals with HIV seeking vocational rehabilitation (n = 173), youth in the juvenile justice system (n = 271), public schoolchildren (n = 174), substance users (n = 845), intercollegiate athletes (n = 90), and other community-based samples (n = 396). DESIGN: Cross-sectional. MAIN MEASURE: Brain Injury Screening Questionnaire. RESULTS: Screening using the Brain Injury Screening Questionnaire finds that 27% to 54% of those in high-risk populations report a history of TBI with chronic symptoms. Associations between TBI and social, academic, or other problems are evident in several studies. In non-high-risk community samples, 9% to 12% of individuals report TBI with chronic symptoms. CONCLUSION: Systematic TBI screening can be implemented efficiently and inexpensively in a variety of settings. Lifetime TBI history data gathered using a structured self-report instrument can augment existing estimates of the prevalence of TBI, both as an acute event and as a chronic condition. Identification of individuals with TBI can facilitate primary prevention efforts, such as reducing risk for reinjury in high-risk groups, and provide access to appropriate interventions that can reduce the personal and societal costs of TBI (tertiary prevention).

Predictors of follow-up completeness in longitudinal research on traumatic brain injury: findings from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research traumatic brain injury model systems program.

OBJECTIVE: To identify baseline participant variables in the domains of demographics, medical/psychosocial history, injury characteristics, and postinjury functional status associated with longitudinal follow-up completeness in persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) using the TBI Model Systems (TBIMS) National Database (NDB). DESIGN: Exhaustive chi-square automatic interaction detection was used to identify factors that classified participants according to level of follow-up completeness. SETTING: Retrospective analysis of a multi-center longitudinal database. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals (N=8249) enrolled in the TBIMS NDB between 1989 and 2009 who were eligible for at least the first (year 1) follow-up up to the fifth (year 15) follow-up. INTERVENTIONS: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Follow-up completeness as defined by 6 different longitudinal response patterns (LRPs): completing all follow-ups, wave nonresponse, dropping out, completing no follow-ups without formally withdrawing, formally withdrawing before completing any follow-ups, and formally withdrawing after completing some follow-ups. RESULTS: Completing all follow-ups was associated with higher levels of education, living with parents or others, and having acute care payer data entered in the NDB. Subgroups more vulnerable to loss to follow-up (LTFU) included those with less education, racial/ethnic minority backgrounds, those with better motor functioning on rehabilitation discharge, and those for whom baseline data on education, employment, and acute care payer were not collected. No subgroups were found to be more likely to have the LRPs of dropping out or formal withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS: These data identify subgroups in which retention strategies beyond those most commonly used might reduce LTFU in longitudinal studies of persons with TBI, such as the TBIMS, and suggest future investigations into factors associated with missing baseline data.

Sexual functioning and the effect of fatigue in traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES: The primary objective was to examine specific aspects of sexual functioning (frequency, desired frequency, importance, and satisfaction) and their relationship to fatigue in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) compared with those without brain injury. The relationship of demographic variables, emotional well-being, and health-related quality of life to sexual functioning was also explored. PARTICIPANTS: 200 community-dwelling adults with self-reported mild-to-severe TBI and 83 individuals without brain injury. MEASURES: Participation Objective, Participation Subjective, Fatigue Assessment Instrument, Global Fatigue Index, Beck Depression Inventory, and SF-36 Health Survey. METHODS: Data were collected through administration of self-report measures and interviews as part of a larger study of post-TBI fatigue. RESULTS: Several aspects of sexual activity (frequency, desired frequency, and importance) were closely related to specific features of fatigue among individuals with TBI. Women with TBI reported lower frequency and lower importance of sex than men. In individuals without brain injury, the impact of fatigue was limited to the frequency of sexual activity with no sex differences observed. CONCLUSIONS: Fatigue plays a different role in the subjective experience of sexual activity for men and women with TBI than for those without brain injuries. Fatigue and sex should be taken into account in future research and interventions focused on sexual function after TBI.

What is post TBI fatigue?

BACKGROUND: Fatigue is among the most common sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI). OBJECTIVES: To summarize the empirical and theoretical literature on Post TBI fatigue (PTBIF) and identify some of the challenges that continue to confront clinicians, researchers and individuals with TBI. METHODS: Qualitative literature review. The epidemiology, characteristics, and correlates of PTBIF are described. Challenges in the operational definition and measurement of fatigue are discussed and the empirical literature on measurement of PTBIF and theoretical models of the potential etiology of PTBIF is summarized. Existing treatments of PTBIF and the research supporting them are reviewed. Future directions for clinical research are presented. RESULTS: Although PTBIF is a high incidence condition after TBI that is related to significant suffering and reduced quality of life, it remains inadequately measured and treated. Its etiology and precipitants are poorly understood and intervention research is inadequate. CONCLUSION: Further research is necessary to develop psychometrically-sound objective and subjective measures of PTBIF and examine the efficacy of treatments for fatigue. Interventions shown to improve fatigue in other populations should be considered in treating PTBIF.

Cognitive problems in patients on androgen deprivation therapy: a qualitative pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT; also known as hormone therapy) is a well-established treatment for prostate cancer patients with rising prostate-specific antigen levels after localized treatment, and for those with metastatic disease. The neurological impact of ADT has been likened to that of aging and is therefore theorized to impair cognitive functioning in prostate cancer patients. We briefly summarize the research that has examined cognitive functioning of ADT patients primarily through neuropsychological assessment. A qualitative pilot study is presented with the aim of describing ADT patients' experiences of cognitive changes since starting ADT. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Semistructured telephone interviews were undertaken with 11 community-dwelling prostate cancer patients undergoing ADT following definitive localized treatment. Participants were recruited via online prostate cancer support forums. Content analyses were conducted to establish relevant themes, which in this case were the cognitive domains of impairment. RESULTS: Eight of the 11 participants reported impairments in the domains of concentration, information processing, verbal fluency, visual information processing/visuospatial function, memory, and executive dysfunction. Neurobehavioral problems, including neurofatigue and apathy were also reported. CONCLUSIONS: The interviews illustrate the potential negative effects of ADT on cognitive and neurobehavioral functions, and their impact on patients' work and in their daily lives. We describe how the field of cognitive rehabilitation offers promising tools to assist ADT patients with cognitive problems.

Insomnia, fatigue, and sleepiness in the first 2 years after traumatic brain injury: an NIDRR TBI model system module study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of insomnia and posttraumatic brain injury (TBI) fatigue (PTBIF) in individuals with moderate to severe TBI, to explore the relationship between PTBIF and insomnia and their association with outcomes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Five National Institute of Disability and Rehabilitation Research TBI Model Systems. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred thirty-four individuals with TBI who completed 1-year (n = 213) or 2-year (n = 121) follow-up interviews between 2008 and 2012. MAIN OUTCOME RESULTS: Insomnia occurred in 11% to 24% and PTBIF in 33% to 44% of the individuals. Insomnia and fatigue were both related to sleep disturbance, sleep hygiene, satisfaction with life, anxiety, and depression. PTBIF was associated with greater disability and sleepiness. Insomnia without fatigue was rare (2%-3%) but PTBIF without insomnia occurred in 21% to 23% of the individuals. Comorbidity occurred in 9% to 22% of the individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Although PTBIF and insomnia are closely related and both associated with poorer quality of life, they are affected independently by a variety of factors, especially psychopathology and sleep quality. A majority of individuals with PTBIF do not have insomnia; and PTBIF appears to be related to disability severity and daytime sleepiness, where insomnia is not. Demographic and injury variables are not strong predictors of insomnia or PTBIF.

Feasibility of computerized brain plasticity-based cognitive training after traumatic brain injury.

The present study investigates the feasibility and utility of using a computerized brain plasticity-based cognitive training (BPCT) program as an intervention for community-dwelling individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). In a pre-post pilot study, 10 individuals with mild to severe TBI who were 6 mo to 22 yr postinjury were asked to use a computerized BPCT intervention-designed to improve cognitive functioning through a graduated series of structured exercises-at their homes in an urban community. Outcome measures included objective neuropsychological and self-report measures of cognitive functioning. All participants were able to use the software in their homes. Some mild fatigue was reported, which tended to dissipate over time. Few technical difficulties were reported. Remote support was sufficient for what technical assistance was needed. Participants reported subjective improvement in cognitive functioning, and small to large effect sizes on self-report and neuropsychological measures are reported. We conclude that BPCT may be a viable intervention for TBI outpatients as an adjunct to comprehensive neurorehabilitation. The intervention can be delivered in patients' homes with support provided remotely. Results of this study demonstrate the potential for treatment-related improvements many years after injury. Further study in controlled trials is warranted.

Suicidal ideation following traumatic brain injury: prevalence rates and correlates in adults living in the community.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the rates of suicidal ideation (SI) in a sample of community-dwelling adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to assess the relationship between SI and demographic and injury characteristics, pre- and postinjury psychiatric history, and psychosocial functioning. PARTICIPANTS: Data were collected from a cohort study focused on health, psychosocial functioning, and community integration post-TBI (N = 356). Participants were individuals with mild to severe TBI living in the community. MEASURES: The Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) was used to assess SI. Psychiatric functioning was assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition) (DSM-IV) Axis I disorders (SCID-I), and psychosocial functioning was assessed using the Life-3, the Flanagan Scale of Unmet Needs, and the Bigelow Quality of Life Questionnaire. RESULTS: There were no differences in SI endorsement based on gender, age, race, income, education, injury severity, or length of time since injury. Those who met current criteria for a psychiatric diagnosis of depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic stress disorder reported SI more frequently. Those with SI reported significantly lower psychosocial functioning. CONCLUSION: Individuals with TBI from all demographic groups and with injuries of varying severity are at risk for SI and thus for emotional distress and suicidal behavior. Screening for SI is indicated in all individuals with TBI, particularly those with a history of premorbid substance misuse and concurrent mood and anxiety disorders. The importance of interventions to maximize social support and reduce social isolation is discussed.

Does gender influence cognitive outcome after traumatic brain injury?

The aim of this study was to determine whether males and females differ in post-acute cognitive outcome following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Performances of 83 men and 75 women with mild to severe TBI were compared on measures of cognitive functions typically impacted by TBI (i.e., processing speed, executive functioning, and memory). Participants completed selected subtests of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Among the participants with mild TBI, women scored significantly higher than men on a test of visual memory. There were no other significant gender differences in cognitive outcomes. These findings overall suggest that cognitive outcome after TBI does not differ according to gender, with the possible exception of memory functioning. Further research is needed to replicate this finding and determine which moderating variables may impact on the relationship between gender and cognitive outcome after TBI.

The relationship between employment-related self-efficacy and quality of life following traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the relative contribution of employment-related and general self-efficacy to perceptions of quality of life (QoL) for individuals with traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Correlational. SETTING: Community-based research and training center. PARTICIPANTS: 427 individuals with self-reported TBI under the age of 65 were included in analysis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Employment-related self-efficacy, general self-efficacy, perceived quality of life (PQoL), unmet important needs (UIN). RESULTS: Significant correlations were found between income, injury severity, age at injury, and employment and the QoL variables. In addition, employment-related and general self-efficacy correlated positively with both PQoL and UIN. Employment-related and general self-efficacy accounted for 16% of the variance in PQoL and 9.5% of the variance in UIN, over and above other variables traditionally associated with QoL. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the importance of including subjective appraisals of employment, such as perceived self-efficacy at the workplace, in assessing QoL and successful return to work following TBI.

A randomized controlled trial of sertraline for the treatment of depression in persons with traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the efficacy of sertraline in the treatment of depression after traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN: Double-blind, randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Research center at a major urban medical center. PARTICIPANTS: Subjects were a referred and volunteer sample of 52 participants with TBI, a diagnosis of major depression disorder (MDD), and a score on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) of 18 or greater. The majority of the sample was male (58%), had less than 14 years of education (73%), had incomes below $20,000 (82%), and were from minority backgrounds (75%). Approximately one third of the sample had mild brain injuries, and two thirds had moderate to severe brain injuries. The mean age was 47+/-11, and the mean time since injury was 17+/-14 years. One participant withdrew from the study because of side effects. INTERVENTION: Daily oral sertraline in doses starting at 25mg and increasing to therapeutic levels (up to 200mg) or placebo for 10 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The HAM-D, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and the Life-3 quality of life (QOL). RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were found at baseline between drug and placebo groups on baseline measures of depression (24.8+/-7.3 vs 27.7+/-7.0), anxiety (16.4+/-12.3 vs 24.0+/-14.9), or QOL (2.96+/-1.0 vs 2.9+/-0.9). The income level of those receiving placebo was significantly lower than those participants receiving medication. Analyses of covariance revealed significant changes from preintervention to posttreatment for all 3 outcome measures (P<.001) but no group effects. Random-effects modeling did not find any significant difference in patterns of scores of the outcome measures between the placebo and medication groups. CONCLUSIONS: Both groups showed improvements in mood, anxiety, and QOL, with 59% of the experimental group and 32% of the placebo group responding to the treatment, defined as a reduction of a person's HAM-D score by 50%.

A comparison of cognitive functioning in older adults with and without traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive impairments are common sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and are often associated with the natural process of aging. Few studies have examined the effect of both age and TBI on cognitive functioning. The purpose of this study was to compare cognitive functioning between older adults who sustained a TBI to an age-matched group of individuals without a brain injury and to determine whether the presence or absence of a genetic marker apolipoprotein epsilon (APOEepsilon4 allele) accounts for additional cognitive decline in both groups examined. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Cognitive performance was measured by 11 neuropsychological tests, in 54 adults with TBI aged 55 and older and 40 age-matched control participants. All participants were reexamined 2 to 5 years later. SETTING: Community volunteer-based sample examined at a large, urban medical center. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): California Verbal Learning Test; Wechsler Memory Scale-III (Logical Memory I & II; Visual Reproduction I & II); Grooved Pegboard; Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Ability (Visual Matching and Cross-out); Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; Trail Making Test A & B; Conners' Continuous Performance Task; Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (Vocabulary); Controlled Oral Word Association Test; and Boston Naming Test. RESULTS: Participants with TBI had lower scores on tests of attention and verbal memory than did participants with no disability. Neither group exhibited a significant decline in cognitive function over time. The presence of the APOEepsilon4 allele did not account for additional decline in cognitive function in either group. CONCLUSION(S): The findings suggest that older adults with TBI may not be at increased risk for cognitive decline over short time periods (2 to 5 years) even if they are carriers of the APOEepsilon4 allele.

Objective measurement of fatigue following traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify posttraumatic brain injury (post-TBI) mental fatigue objectively by documenting changes in performance on neuropsychological tests as a result of sustained mental effort and to examine the relationship between objectively measured mental fatigue and self-reported situational and day-to-day fatigue. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 202 community-dwelling individuals with mild-severe TBI and 73 noninjured controls. MEASURES: Measures included Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, Global Fatigue Index, and situational fatigue rating. METHOD: Subjects were administered a 30-minute computerized neuropsychological test battery 3 times. The second and third administrations of the battery were separated by approximately 2 hours of interviews and administration of self-report measures. RESULTS: The neuropsychological test scores were factor analyzed, yielding 3 subscales: speed, accuracy, and executive function. Situational fatigue and day-to-day fatigue were significantly higher in individual with TBI group than in individuals without TBI and were associated with speed subscale scores. Individuals with TBI evidenced a significant decline in performance on the accuracy subscale score. These declines in performance related to sustained mental effort were not associated with subjective fatigue in the TBI group. While practice effects on the speed and accuracy scores were observed in non-brain-injured individuals, they were not evidenced in individuals with TBI. CONCLUSIONS: Findings were largely consistent with previous literature and indicated that while subjective fatigue is associated with poor performance in individuals with TBI, it is not associated with objective decline in performance of mental tasks.

Fatigue after traumatic brain injury and its impact on participation and quality of life.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationships between post-TBI fatigue (PTBIF) and comorbid conditions, participation in activities, quality of life, and demographic and injury variables. PARTICIPANTS: 223 community-dwelling individuals with mild to severe TBI and 85 noninjured controls. MEASURES: Global Fatigue Index (GFI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory (PSQI), Participation Objective Participation Subjective (POPS), SF-36, Life-3. METHOD: Data were collected through interviews and administration of self-report measures as part of a study of PTBIF. RESULTS: Fatigue was more severe and prevalent in individuals with TBI, and more severe among women. It was not correlated with other demographic and injury variables. Once overlap in measurement instruments' content was removed, depression, pain, and sleep problems accounted for approximately 23% of the variance in fatigue in those with TBI compared to 58% of the variance in the control group. PTBIF was correlated with health-related quality of life and overall quality of life, but was not generally related to participation in major life activities. CONCLUSIONS: PTBIF has significant impact on well-being and quality of life and cannot be accounted for by comorbid conditions alone, suggesting that it is related to brain injury itself. It appears to be unrelated to demographic and injury variables other than gender. PTBIF does not limit the quantity and frequency of participation. Future research should focus on the relationship between fatigue and the quality of participation.

Traumatic brain injury: future assessment tools and treatment prospects.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is widespread and leads to death and disability in millions of individuals around the world each year. Overall incidence and prevalence of TBI are likely to increase in absolute terms in the future. Tackling the problem of treating TBI successfully will require improvements in the understanding of normal cerebral anatomy, physiology, and function throughout the lifespan, as well as the pathological and recuperative responses that result from trauma. New treatment approaches and combinations will need to be targeted to the heterogeneous needs of TBI populations. This article explores and evaluates the research evidence in areas that will likely lead to a reduction in TBI-related morbidity and improved outcomes. These include emerging assessment instruments and techniques in areas of structural/chemical and functional neuroimaging and neuropsychology, advances in the realms of cell-based therapies and genetics, promising cognitive rehabilitation techniques including cognitive remediation and the use of electronic technologies including assistive devices and virtual reality, and the emerging field of complementary and alternative medicine.

Neurobehavioral consequences of traumatic brain injury.

At least 1.4 million people die, or receive hospital or emergency care every year in the United States as a result of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Many more are treated in other settings or receive no treatment at all. Thus TBI is often unidentified, with subsequent cognitive, behavioral, emotional and physical sequelae that are not linked to the injury. Yet, over 5.3 million Americans live with TBI-related disabilities that interfere with their overall performance and social roles within the community. The pathophysiology and consequences of TBI are discussed, as are functional changes and psychiatric manifestations after TBI. Finally, implications and recommendations for clinical practice are reviewed, including the importance of screening for TBI.

Cognitive impairment associated with toxigenic fungal exposure: a response to two critiques.

Fox, Greiffenstein, and Lees-Haley (2005) and McCaffrey and Yantz (2005) criticized our 2004 article that reported neuropsychological evidence of cognitive impairment in a sample of individuals exposed to toxic molds who complained of cognitive difficulties (Gordon et al., 2004). They critiqued the study's justification, design, analyses, and conclusions and characterized it as poor epidemiology. This article is a rebuttal to their comments. It documents that both sets of negative comments are based on frequent inaccuracies, mischaracterizations of our findings, and red herrings. Furthermore, they failed to refute the implications of the study's main findings.