Masked or not, I smile to you: Exploring full-term and preterm infants' social smiles to adults wearing a protective facemask.

The early emergence of social smiles is an important milestone of infants' socio-emotional development. Our aim was to assess how the use of protective facemasks by adults affects the display of social smiles in preterm (PT) and full-term (FT) infants at 3 months (corrected age for prematurity). We enrolled 30 FT and 30 PT infants (gestational age ≤ 32 weeks). Infants' social smiles displays were assessed at 2-3-month-age (corrected) across a three-episode (masked mother; unmasked mother; masked adult female stranger) videotaped interactive task. During each episode, the adult was instructed to maintain specific facial expressions (happy-smiling, sad-frowning, neutral-unresponsive) for 15 second windows and then instructed to interact spontaneously for 45 s (of which the first 15 s were coded). FT and PT infants did not differ in the display of social smiles. In both groups, social smiles were mostly exhibited in response to happy/smiling and spontaneously interacting partners. Overall, no effect of wearing a protective facemask emerged. The use of protective facemasks did not result in a lower display of social smiles. The findings suggest that FT and PT might be equally sensitive to their adult interactive partners in terms of social smiles displays at 2-3-month-age.

Differentiating early sensory profiles in toddlers at elevated likelihood of autism and association with later clinical outcome and diagnosis.

LAY ABSTRACT: Early sensory responsiveness may produce cascading effects on later development, but the relation between sensory profiles and autistic diagnosis remains unclear. In a longitudinal sample of toddlers at elevated likelihood for autism, we aimed to characterize sensory subgroups and their association with clinical outcomes later on. Three sensory subgroups were described and early sensory sensitivity plays a significant role in later development and diagnosis. This study supported the importance of examining different levels of sensory patterns to dissect the phenotypic heterogeneity in sensory processing. As sensory differences are associated with later developmental outcomes, these results may be critical when designing intervention needs and support for children at increased likelihood for neurodevelopmental disorders.

Maternal pandemic-related stress during pregnancy associates with infants' socio-cognitive development at 12 months: A longitudinal multi-centric study.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal maternal stress is a key risk factor for infants' development. Previous research has highlighted consequences for infants' socio-emotional and cognitive outcomes, but less is known for what regards socio-cognitive development. In this study, we report on the effects of maternal prenatal stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic on 12-month-old infants' behavioral markers of socio-cognitive development. METHODS: Ninety infants and their mothers provided complete longitudinal data from birth to 12 months. At birth, mothers reported on pandemic-related stress during pregnancy. At infants' 12-month-age, a remote mother-infant interaction was videotaped: after an initial 2-min face-to-face episode, the experimenter remotely played a series of four auditory stimuli (2 human and 2 non-human sounds). The auditory stimuli sequence was counterbalanced among participants and each sound was repeated three times every 10 seconds (Exposure, 30 seconds) while mothers were instructed not to interact with their infants and to display a neutral still-face expression. Infants' orienting, communication, and pointing toward the auditory source was coded micro-analytically and a socio-cognitive score (SCS) was obtained by means of a principal component analysis. RESULTS: Infants equally oriented to human and non-human auditory stimuli. All infants oriented toward the sound during the Exposure episode, 80% exhibited any communication directed to the auditory source, and 48% showed at least one pointing toward the sound. Mothers who reported greater prenatal pandemic-related stress had infants with higher probability of showing no communication, t = 2.14 (p = .035), or pointing, t = 1.93 (p = .057). A significant and negative linear association was found between maternal prenatal pandemic-related stress and infants' SCS at 12 months, R2 = .07 (p = .010), while adjusting for potential confounders. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that prenatal maternal stress during the COVID-19 pandemic might have increased the risk of an altered socio-cognitive development in infants as assessed through an observational paradigm at 12 months. Special preventive attention should be devoted to infants born during the pandemic.

Stability of maternal postnatal bonding between 3 and 6 months: Associations with maternal mental health and infant temperament.

Maternal bonding is key for infant development and well-being. Research to date focused on prenatal bonding experience, with fewer studies looking at the postnatal period. Moreover, evidence suggests significant associations among maternal bonding, maternal mental health, and infant temperament. The joint impact of maternal mental health and infant temperament on maternal postnatal bonding remains unclear, with limited research reporting longitudinal data. Hence, the present study aims (1) to explore the impact of maternal mental health and infant temperament on postnatal bonding at both 3 and 6 months of age, (2) to explore postnatal bonding stability from 3 to 6 months, and (3) to determine which factors are linked with 3-to-6-month changes in bonding. At the infants' 3 months (n = 261) and 6 months of age (n = 217), mothers provided measures of bonding, depressive and anxious symptoms, and infant temperament via validated questionnaires. At 3 months, higher levels of maternal bonding were predicted by lower levels of anxiety and depression in the mothers and by higher infants' regulation scores. At 6 months, lower levels of anxiety and depression predicted higher levels of bonding. Moreover, mothers showing decreases in bonding were characterized by 3-to-6-month increases in depression and anxiety, as well as increased reported difficulties in regulation dimensions of infant temperament. This study highlights the impact of both maternal mental health and infant temperament on maternal postnatal bonding in a longitudinal sample and could offer useful information for early childhood prevention and care.

Lateralized reading in the healthy brain: A behavioral and computational study on the nature of the visual field effect.

Despite its widespread use to measure functional lateralization of language in healthy subjects, the neurocognitive bases of the visual field effect in lateralized reading are still debated. Crucially, the lack of knowledge on the nature of the visual field effect is accompanied by a lack of knowledge on the relative impact of psycholinguistic factors on its measurement, thus potentially casting doubts on its validity as a functional laterality measure. In this study, an eye-tracking-controlled tachistoscopic lateralized lexical decision task (Experiment 1) was administered to 60 right-handed and 60 left-handed volunteers and word length, orthographic neighborhood, word frequency, and imageability were manipulated. The magnitude of visual field effect was bigger in right-handed than in left-handed participants. Across the whole sample, a visual field-by-frequency interaction was observed, whereby a comparatively smaller effect of word frequency was detected in the left visual field/right hemisphere (LVF/RH) than in the right visual field/left hemisphere (RVF/LH). In a subsequent computational study (Experiment 2), efficient (LH) and inefficient (RH) activation of lexical orthographic nodes was modelled by means of the Naïve Discriminative Learning approach. Computational data simulated the effect of visual field and its interaction with frequency observed in the Experiment 1. Data suggest that the visual field effect can be biased by word frequency. Less distinctive connections between orthographic cues and lexical/semantic output units in the RH than in the LH can account for the emergence of the visual field effect and its interaction with word frequency.

Speech Sound Development in 18-Month-Old Children With Sex Chromosome Trisomies.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to describe speech sound development in a group of 18-month-old children with sex chromosome trisomies (SCTs), compared with a group of typically developing (TD) peers. Concurrent and longitudinal relationships between speech sound abilities and lexical development were examined. METHOD: A group of 76 children aged 18 months, 38 children prenatally diagnosed with SCTs (12 with XXY, 12 with XYY, and 14 with XXX) and 38 TD children, participated in the study. From video recordings of semistructured naturalistic parent-child play sessions, quantitative and qualitative measures of speech sound development were collected (e.g., the number of consonants, type and place of articulation, and syllable structures used), and group differences were observed. The relationships between the number of consonants produced and vocabulary size at 18 and 24 months were assessed. RESULTS: At 18 months, children with SCTs used a significantly lower number of consonants than TD children. Qualitatively, children with SCTs used significantly fewer articulatory complex consonants (fricative/affricates) and a more restricted inventory of syllable structures. The number of consonants used was significantly correlated with lexical development at 18 months. Moreover, in the SCTs group (but not in the TD group), the children with lower speech sound development at 18 months showed a significantly smaller vocabulary growth between 18 and 24 months than those with higher speech-sound development. CONCLUSIONS: Toddlers with SCTs showed a significantly delayed speech sound development pattern rather than an atypical one. Children with SCTs with low speech sound development also showed lower vocabulary growth between 18 and 24 months of age. These results can be clinically relevant for follow-up and treatment planning for children with SCTs.

Envisioning translational hyperscanning: how applied neuroscience might improve family-centered care.

From the very beginning of their life, human beings are immersed in a social and interactive environment that contributes to shaping their social and cognitive development under typical and at-risk conditions. In order to understand human development in its bidirectional relationship with the social environment, we need to develop a 'complexity-sensitive' approach in neuroscience. Recent advances have started to do so with the application of hyperscanning techniques which involve recording adult and child neural activity simultaneously and highlighting the presence of similar patterns of brain activity in the dyad. Numerous studies focused on typically developing children have been published in recent years with the application of this technique to different fields of developmental research. However, hyperscanning techniques could also be extremely beneficial and effective in studying development in atypical and clinical populations. Such application, namely translational hyperscanning, should foster the transition toward a two-brain translational neuroscience. In this paper, we envision how the application of hyperscanning to atypical and clinical child populations can inform family-centered care for children and their parents.

Language Development in Sex Chromosome Trisomies: Developmental Profiles at 2 and 4 Years of Age, and Predictive Measures.

PURPOSE: Describing language development in children with sex chromosome trisomies (SCT) and testing the predictive value of early language measures on later outcomes. METHOD: Thirteen children with SCT were followed longitudinally. Their developmental profile was assessed, with particular attention to language, at 2 and 4 years. The predictive value of direct (spontaneous speech analysis) and indirect (communicative development inventory) language measures at 2 on performances at 4 was tested. RESULTS: Language performances at both ages were lower than non-verbal development. At 2, more than 50% of the group produced less than 50 words. At 4, impaired performances were observed in speech sound development and expressive morpho-syntax. Direct measures of Pre-syntactic development predicted later global language outcomes and Sentence Repetition. The number of consonants used at 2 was significantly related to Nonword Repetition at 4. CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the importance of early detection and careful follow-up for children with SCT.

Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on the Emotional and Behavioral Profiles of Preschool Italian Children with and without Familial Risk for Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

The effects of COVID-19 containment measures on the emotional and behavioral development of preschoolers are not clear. We investigated them within an ongoing longitudinal project including typically developing children (TD) and children at high familial risk for neurodevelopmental disorders (HR-NDD) who were potentially more vulnerable. The study included ninety children aged 2-6 years (TD = 48; HR-NDD = 42). Before the emergency phase (T0), all children received a clinical assessment, including the parent questionnaire Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5-5 (CBCL 1.5-5). The same questionnaire was filled out again during the emergency (T1), together with an ad-hoc questionnaire investigating environmental factors characterizing the specific period. Changes in the CBCL profiles between T0 and T1 were evaluated. Overall, irrespective of familial risk, the average T-scores on specific CBCL scales at T1 were higher than at T0. Associations emerged between delta scores reflecting worsening scores on specific CBCL scales and clinical and environmental factors. Our results confirmed the negative impact of the lockdown on preschool children's emotional/behavioral profiles, and highlight the need for strategic approaches in the age range of 2-6 years, especially for more susceptible children owing to environmental factors and pre-existing emotional problems.