Plate waste increases with the number of foods proposed: An exploratory experimental study in adolescents' school canteens.

The objective of this exploratory study was to examine whether the number of foods offered has an impact on plate waste and meal satisfaction in adolescents' school canteens. The plate waste of 247 French students was estimated during two school lunches, the only variation being the number of starters offered (3 versus 6). Plate waste was assessed by the weight of food left on the tray. Students had to complete a short questionnaire regarding their general satisfaction with the meal. The results indicated that limiting the number of starters provided from 6 to 3 choices led to a decrease of Plate waste (-28.1 g) (p < .0001), and a modest increase in Meal satisfaction (p = .02). They suggest that limiting the number of food choices in school canteens reduces plate waste, while not diminishing satisfaction with the meal.

Effect of the Manufacturing Process on the Microbiota, Organoleptic Properties and Volatilome of Three Salmon-Based Products.

Lightly preserved seafood products, such as cold-smoked fish and fish gravlax, are traditionally consumed in Europe and are of considerable economic importance. This work aimed to compare three products that were obtained from the same batch of fish: cold-smoked salmon (CSS) stored under vacuum packaging (VP) or a modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and VP salmon dill gravlax (SG). Classical microbiological analyses and 16S rRNA metabarcoding, biochemical analyses (trimethylamine, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), biogenic amines, pH, volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) and sensory analyses (quantitative descriptive analysis) were performed on each product throughout their storage at a chilled temperature. The three products shared the same initial microbiota, which were mainly dominated by Photobacterium, Lactococcus and Lactobacillus genera. On day 28, the VP CSS ecosystem was mainly composed of Photobacterium and, to a lesser extent, Lactococcus and Lactobacillus genera, while Lactobacillus was dominant in the MAP CSS. The diversity was higher in the SG, which was mainly dominated by Enterobacteriaceae, Photobacterium, Lactobacillus and Lactococcus. Although the sensory spoilage was generally weak, gravlax was the most perishable product (slight increase in amine and acidic off-odors and flavors, fatty appearance, slight discoloration and drop in firmness), followed by the VP CSS, while the MAP CSS did not spoil. Spoilage was associated with an increase in the TVBN, biogenic amines and spoilage associated VOCs, such as decanal, nonanal, hexadecanal, benzaldehyde, benzeneacetaldehyde, ethanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2,3-butanediol, 1-octen-3-ol, 2-butanone and 1-octen-3-one. This study showed that the processing and packaging conditions both had an effect on the microbial composition and the quality of the final product.

Use of random forest methodology to link aroma profiles to volatile compounds: Application to enzymatic hydrolysis of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) by-products combined with Maillard reactions.

To use salmon protein hydrolysates as food ingredients and to mask the fish odor, Maillard reactions were associated with enzymatic production of hydrolysates. The study explored an original approach based on regression trees (RT) and random forest (RF) methodologies to predict hydrolysate odor profiles from volatile compounds. An experimental design with four factors: enzyme/substrate ratio, quantity of xylose, hydrolysis and cooking times was used to create a range of enzymatic hydrolysates. Twenty samples were submitted to a trained panel for sensory descriptions of odor. Hydrolysate volatile compounds were extracted by means of Headspace Solid Phase MicroExtraction (HS-SPME) and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that RT and RF methodologies can be useful tools for predicting an entire sensory profile from volatile compounds. Four main volatile compounds made it possible to separate hydrolysates into five groups according to their specific sensory profile. 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone and 3-hydroxy-2-pentanone were identified as the main predictors of the roasted odor, whereas methanethiol was associated with a mud odor. These results also suggest the appropriate process conditions for obtaining a typical roasted odor.

Lay and scientific categorizations of new breeding techniques: Implications for food policy and genetically modified organism legislation.

The rapid development of new genetic breeding techniques is accompanied by a polarized debate around their risks. Research on the public perception of these techniques lags behind scientific developments. This study tests a method for revealing laypeople's perceptions and attitudes about different genetic techniques. The objectives are to enable laypeople to understand the key principles of new genetic breeding techniques and to permit a comparison of their modes of classification with those of scientific experts. The combined method of a free sorting task and focus groups showed that the participants distinguished the techniques that did not induce any change in DNA sequence, and applied two different logics to classify the other breeding techniques: a Cartesian logic and a naturalistic logic with a distinct set of values. The lay categorization differed substantially from current scientific categorizations of genetic breeding techniques. These findings have implications for food innovation policy and genetically modified organism legislation.

Salmon Gravlax Biopreservation With Lactic Acid Bacteria: A Polyphasic Approach to Assessing the Impact on Organoleptic Properties, Microbial Ecosystem and Volatilome Composition.

Seafood and fishery products are very perishable commodities with short shelf-lives owing to rapid deterioration of their organoleptic and microbiological quality. Microbial growth and activity are responsible for up to 25% of food losses in the fishery industry. In this context and to meet consumer demand for minimally processed food, developing mild preservation technologies such as biopreservation represents a major challenge. In this work, we studied the use of six lactic acid bacteria (LAB), previously selected for their properties as bioprotective agents, for salmon dill gravlax biopreservation. Naturally contaminated salmon dill gravlax slices, with a commercial shelf-life of 21 days, were purchased from a French industrial company and inoculated by spraying with the protective cultures (PCs) to reach an initial concentration of 106 log CFU/g. PC impact on gravlax microbial ecosystem (cultural and acultural methods), sensory properties (sensory profiling test), biochemical parameters (pH, TMA, TVBN, biogenic amines) and volatilome was followed for 25 days of storage at 8°C in vacuum packaging. PC antimicrobial activity was also assessed in situ against Listeria monocytogenes. This polyphasic approach underlined two scenarios depending on the protective strain. Carnobacterium maltaromaticum SF1944, Lactococcus piscium EU2229 and Leuconostoc gelidum EU2249, were very competitive in the product, dominated the microbial ecosystem, and displayed antimicrobial activity against the spoilage microbiota and L. monocytogenes. The strains also expressed their own sensory and volatilome signatures. However, of these three strains, C. maltaromaticum SF1944 did not induce strong spoilage and was the most efficient for L. monocytogenes growth control. By contrast, Vagococcus fluvialis CD264, Carnobacterium inhibens MIP2551 and Aerococcus viridans SF1044 were not competitive, did not express strong antimicrobial activity and produced only few organic volatile compounds (VOCs). However, V. fluvialis CD264 was the only strain to extend the sensory quality, even beyond 25 days. This study shows that C. maltaromaticum SF1944 and V. fluvialis CD264 both have a promising potential as bioprotective cultures to ensure salmon gravlax microbial safety and sensorial quality, respectively.

The effect of algae diets (Skeletonema costatum and Rhodomonas baltica) on the biochemical composition and sensory characteristics of Pacific cupped oysters (Crassostrea gigas) during land-based refinement.

Oyster refinement, a common practice in France, is aimed at increasing the weight of oyster tissue and influencing the taste properties of the refined oysters. Refinement usually takes place in land-based systems where the oysters are fed with relatively high concentrations of microalgae. In this study the impact of feeding Skeletonema costatum and Rhodomonas baltica on the biochemical composition and sensory characteristics of Pacific cupped oysters (Crassostrea gigas) from the Eastern Scheldt during land-based refinement was studied. After a feeding period of four and seven weeks market-sized oysters were sampled for the analysis of fatty acids, free amino acids and volatile organic compounds and for a sensory evaluation by consumers and an expert panel. The algae Skeletonema costatum showed a lower ∑PUFA, ∑n-3, ∑n-6, C18:2n6, C18:3n3, C18:4n3, C22:6n3 content as compared with Rhodomonas baltica. These differences were also reflected in the fatty acid profile of the oysters fed with the corresponding algae diets. Furthermore, general linear model and principal component analysis showed marked differences in free amino acids and volatile organic compound content between Skeletonema, Rhodomonas fed oysters and reference oysters. For example, threonine, glutamine, leucine, histidine, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2octenal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, (E,E)-2,4-octadien-1-ol, (E,Z)-3,6-nonadien-1-ol and (Z,E)-2,6-nonadienal contents were higher in Skeletonema fed oysters compared to Rhodomonas fed oysters. Sensory differences between the experimental oyster groups were shown. Skeletonema fed Pacific cupped oysters were characterized by a stronger seaweed flavor, higher perceived sweetness and a firmer texture in comparison with Rhodomonas fed oysters. Naïve consumers were only able to differentiate between Rhodomonas fed oysters and reference oysters.

Selection of bioprotective cultures for preventing cold-smoked salmon spoilage.

Biopreservation is a natural technology of food preservation, which consists of inoculating food with microorganisms selected for their antibacterial properties. The objective of this study was to select lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to improve the quality of cold-smoked salmon (CSS). In this work, different strains representative of the 4 dominant species, identified in a previous study by pyrosequencing the 16S rRNA gene, were isolated and their spoiling potential in CSS blocks, sterilized by ionization, was assessed by twelve trained panelists along the vacuum storage at 8°C. Photobacterium phosphoreum, Brochothrix thermosphacta and Serratia proteamaculans released strong off-odors whereas the spoiling potential of Carnobacterium divergens was weaker. The spoiling capacity of Lactococcus piscium EU2241, Leuconostoc gelidum EU2247, Lactobacillus sakei EU2885, Staphylococcus equorum S030674 and 4 commercial starters was tested by the same method and 2 strains were eliminated due to off-odor production. The effect of the 6 selected LAB against the 4 specific spoiling organisms (SSOs) selected was tested by challenge tests in sterile CSS blocks. The protective effect of the LAB differed from one SSO to another and no correlation could be established between the sensory improvement, SSO inhibition, and the implantation or acidification of protective cultures (PCs). All the PCs except L. piscium reduced the off-odors released by P. phosphoreum although some of them had no effect on its growth. S. equorum, which did not grow in CSS, favored the implantation of P. phosphoreum but prevented its off-odor formation. L. piscium was the only strain that prevented the spoilage of B. thermosphacta and S. proteamaculans although it did not grow very well and did not acidify the product. L. gelidum EU2247 inhibited the growth of these 2 SSOs and lowered the pH but had no effect on the sensory quality. Finally, L. piscium was tested in 2 naturally contaminated products, with a positive effect on 1 batch. This effect was not correlated with the microbial ecosystem as determined by acultural and cultural techniques. Based on these results, the selection strategy is discussed.

Origin and ecological selection of core and food-specific bacterial communities associated with meat and seafood spoilage.

The microbial spoilage of meat and seafood products with short shelf lives is responsible for a significant amount of food waste. Food spoilage is a very heterogeneous process, involving the growth of various, poorly characterized bacterial communities. In this study, we conducted 16S ribosomal RNA gene pyrosequencing on 160 samples of fresh and spoiled foods to comparatively explore the bacterial communities associated with four meat products and four seafood products that are among the most consumed food items in Europe. We show that fresh products are contaminated in part by a microbiota similar to that found on the skin and in the gut of animals. However, this animal-derived microbiota was less prevalent and less abundant than a core microbiota, psychrotrophic in nature, mainly originated from the environment (water reservoirs). We clearly show that this core community found on meat and seafood products is the main reservoir of spoilage bacteria. We also show that storage conditions exert strong selective pressure on the initial microbiota: alpha diversity in fresh samples was 189±58 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) but dropped to 27±12 OTUs in spoiled samples. The OTU assemblage associated with spoilage was shaped by low storage temperatures, packaging and the nutritional value of the food matrix itself. These factors presumably act in tandem without any hierarchical pattern. Most notably, we were also able to identify putative new clades of dominant, previously undescribed bacteria occurring on spoiled seafood, a finding that emphasizes the importance of using culture-independent methods when studying food microbiota.

Evaluation of the spoilage potential of bacteria isolated from spoiled cooked whole tropical shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) stored under modified atmosphere packaging.

The spoilage potential of isolates belonging to five bacterial groups/species (Shewanella baltica, Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Aeromonas salmonicida, Vibrio sp., "other Gamma-Proteobacteria" [containing one strain of Pseudoalteromonas sp. and one strain of Psychrobacter sp.]) isolated from spoiled cooked and whole tropical shrimp stored under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) was evaluated by inoculation into ionized cooked and peeled tropical shrimp followed by storage for 32 days at 8 °C. Microbial growth and sensory changes were monitored during the storage period. The major spoilage bacterial isolate groups were C. maltaromaticum and S. baltica. In order to characterize their spoilage potential further and to study the effect of their interactions, each of these two specific spoilage organisms (SSO) and one mixed-culture, C. maltaromaticum/S. baltica, were tested using a combination of complementary methods: molecular (PCR-TTGE), sensory, chemical, and conventional microbiological analyses. It was concluded that, in the mixed-culture-inoculated samples, both species groups imposed their spoilage characteristics.

Evaluation of the spoilage potential of bacteria isolated from spoiled raw salmon (Salmo salar) fillets stored under modified atmosphere packaging.

The spoilage potential of eight bacterial groups/species (Serratia spp., Hafnia alvei, Brochothrix thermosphacta, Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Shewanella baltica, Lactococcus piscium, Photobacterium phosphoreum, "other Enterobacteriaceae" [containing one strain of Moellerella sp., Morganella sp. and Pectobacterium sp.]) isolated from spoiled raw salmon fillets stored under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) was evaluated by inoculation into sterile raw salmon cubes followed by storage for 12days at 8°C. Microbial growth and sensory changes were monitored during the storage period. The dominant spoilage bacteria were C. maltaromaticum, H. alvei and P. phosphoreum. In order to further characterize their spoilage potential and to study the effect of their interactions, each of these 3 specific spoilage organisms (SSO) and two mixed-cultures, C. maltaromaticum/H. alvei and C. maltaromaticum/P. phosphoreum were tested in the sterile salmon model system using a combination of complementary methods: molecular (PCR-TTGE), sensory, chemical and conventional microbiological analyses. It was concluded that, in the mixed-culture inoculated samples, the dominant species determined the spoilage characteristics. The volatile fraction of P. phosphoreum inoculated samples was analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) followed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Among the specific volatile compounds present on P. phosphoreum spoiled inoculated samples, acetic acid was correlated with sensory analysis and can be proposed as a raw salmon spoilage marker.

Perception of oyster-based products by French consumers. The effect of processing and role of social representations.

The search for new markets in the seafood sector, associated with the question of the continuity of raw oyster consumption over generations can be an opportunity for processors to extend their ranges with oyster-based products. The twofold aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of processing and social representation on perception of oyster-based products by French consumers and to identify the best means of development in order to avoid possible failure in the market. Five products with different degrees of processing (cooked oysters in a half-shell, hot preparation for toast, potted oyster, oyster butter and oyster-based soup) were presented within focus groups and consumer tests, at home and in canteens with the staff of several companies in order to reach consumers with different ages and professional activities. The results showed that social representation had a strong impact and that behaviours were contrasted according to the initial profile of the consumer (traditional raw oyster consumers or non-consumers) and their age distribution (younger and older people). The degree of processing has to be adapted to each segment. It is suggested to develop early exposure to influence the food choices and preferences of the youngest consumers on a long-term basis.

Characterisation of the spoilage microbiota in raw salmon (Salmo salar) steaks stored under vacuum or modified atmosphere packaging combining conventional methods and PCR-TTGE.

In order to characterise the spoilage related to microbiota of raw salmon, a combination of culture-dependent and -independent methods, including PCR-TTGE, was used to analyse 3 raw salmon batches stored for 3 days at chilled temperature in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (50% CO2/50% N2) or under vacuum. Sensory evaluation, microbiological enumeration and chemical analysis were performed after 3, 7 and 10 days of storage. At the onset of spoilage, 65 bacterial isolates were picked from the plates. Thus, 13 different genera or species were identified by phenotypic and molecular tests: Serratia spp., Photobacterium phosphoreum, Yersinia intermedia, Hafnia alvei, Buttiauxella gaviniae, Pseudomonas sp., Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Carnobacterium divergens, Lactococcus piscium, Lactobacillus fuchuensis, Vagococcus carniphilus, Leuconostoc gasicomitatum and Brochothrix thermosphacta. The PCR-TTGE profiles and band identification enabled a shift of the dominant populations during the storage to be visualised for all the batches, probably due to the temperature change and the packaging. At the beginning of storage, Pseudomonas sp. dominated the raw salmon microbiota while in the following days (7 and 10), P. phosphoreum and L. piscium were identified as the main bacterial groups. This study enhances the knowledge of MAP and vacuum-packed raw salmon spoilage microbiota.

Sensory and physicochemical evolution of tropical cooked peeled shrimp inoculated by Brochothrix thermosphacta and Lactococcus piscium CNCM I-4031 during storage at 8°C.

This study investigated the sensory quality and physicochemical evolution (pH, glucose, l-lactic acid, biogenic amine, free amino-acids and volatile compounds) during storage at 8°C of cooked peeled shrimp inoculated with the specific spoilage bacteria Brochothrix thermosphacta alone or mixed with the protective strain Lactococcus piscium CNCM I-4031. Growth of both bacteria was monitored at regular intervals during storage by microbial counts and the thermal temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TTGE) technique. Bacterial counts showed that L. piscium and B. thermosphacta inoculated at 7 log CFU/g and 3 log CFU/g were well adapted to shrimp, reaching a maximum level of 9 log CFU/g after 4days and 10days respectively. In mixed culture, the growth of B. thermosphacta was reduced by 3.2±0.1 log CFU/g. The TTGE technique allowed monitoring the colonisation of the strains on the shrimp matrix and confirming the dominance of L. piscium in mixed culture throughout the experiment. Sensory analysis confirmed that B. thermosphacta spoiled the product after 11days, when its cell number attained 8 log CFU/g with the emission of strong butter/caramel off-odours. This sensory profile could be linked to the production of 2,3 butanedione, cyclopentanol, 3-methylbutanol, 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, 4-methyl-3-chloro-3-pentanol and ethanol, which were produced in more significant quantities in the B. thermosphacta batch than in the batches in which the protective strain was present. On the contrary, TVBN and TMA were not suitable as quality indicators for B. thermosphacta spoilage activity. In the products where the protective L. piscium strain was present, no adverse effect on sensory quality was noted by the sensory panels. Moreover, biogenic amine assessment did not show any histamine or tyramine production by this strain, underlining its safety profile. Both strains produced lactic acid (1850mg/kg in L. piscium and B. thermosphacta batch on days 3 and 10 respectively; 3830mg/kg on day 7 in mixed culture) and the pH decrease from 6.6±0.0 to 5.9±0.1 was similar in all batches. Lactic acid production or competition for free amino-acid was not involved in the inhibition mechanism; however rapid glucose consumption by L. piscium could partially explain the growth limitation of the spoilage micro-organism. This study demonstrated the spoilage characteristic of B. thermosphacta and the usefulness of L. piscium as a bioprotective culture for tropical cooked peeled shrimp without any adverse effect on the sensory quality of the product.

Sensory characteristics of spoilage and volatile compounds associated with bacteria isolated from cooked and peeled tropical shrimps using SPME-GC-MS analysis.

The spoilage potential of six bacterial species isolated from cooked and peeled tropical shrimps (Brochothrix thermosphacta, Serratia liquefaciens-like, Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Carnobacterium divergens, Carnobacterium alterfunditum-like and Vagococcus penaei sp. nov.) was evaluated. The bacteria were inoculated into shrimps, packaged in a modified atmosphere and stored for 27 days at 8 °C. Twice a week, microbial growth, as well as chemical and sensory changes, were monitored during the storage period. The bacteria mainly involved in shrimp spoilage were B. thermosphacta, S. liquefaciens-like and C. maltaromaticum whose main characteristic odours were cheese-sour, cabbage-amine and cheese-sour-butter, respectively. The volatile fraction of the inoculated shrimp samples was analysed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This method showed that the characteristic odours were most likely induced by the production of volatile compounds such as 3-methyl-1-butanal, 2,3-butanedione, 2-methyl-1-butanal, 2,3-heptanedione and trimethylamine.

Impact of -2 degrees C superchilling before refrigerated storage (4 and 8 degrees C) on the microbiological and sensory qualities of cold-smoked salmon.

Detection and enumeration of Listeria monocytogenes and total spoilage bacteria in 40 batches of cold-smoked salmon (one batch = 42 products from the same day of manufacture) straight from the factory were carried out. If L. monocytogenes was detected in at least one of the nine samples analyzed on receipt at the laboratory, 9 products of the same batch were stored for 10 days at 4 degrees C, which was followed by 18 days at 8 degrees C (control), 12 products were superchilled for 14 days at -2 degrees C, and 12 other products were superchilled for 28 days at -2 degrees C and then stored under the same conditions as the control was stored. L. monocytogenes was detected in 7% of the 40 batches analyzed immediately after receipt at the laboratory. L. monocytogenes prevalence was similar (approximately 25%) throughout the storage at 4 and 8 degrees C, both in control and super-chilled products at -2 degrees C for 14 days. After superchilling for 28 days at -2 degrees C, L. monocytogenes was found in 9% of products, and in 39% at the end of the storage above 0 degree C. Moreover, the L. monocytogenes count was higher after 3 and 4 weeks of storage at 4 and 8 degrees C in products superchilled 28 days at -2 degrees C than in control products or in products superchilled for 14 days. Serotype 1/2a-3a and nine genetic groups were identified and found throughout the storage scenario. At the end of shelf life, sensory characteristics of products superchilled for 28 days at -2 degrees C were slightly modified. A decrease in firmness associated with increased tearing of salmon slices was observed as well as a slight amine odor.

Mass spectrometry based sensor strategies for the authentication of oysters according to geographical origin.

This study was undertaken to investigate the relevance of using the pyrolysis-MS (Py-MS) technique to discriminate the production area of oysters harvested over two years and to assess from the data of the second year of harvest the potential of an alternative MS-based technique, the solid phase microextraction-MS (SPME-MS), to perform this discrimination. Oysters were harvested in various areas of France, and models of discrimination according to harvest season were built from Py-MS fingerprints and from virtual SPME-MS fingerprints obtained by summing the mass spectra generated by the SPME-GC-MS system. The treatment of the Py-MS data by a 21-12-3 artificial neural networks led to a correct classification of only 89.2% of the oyster samples according to shoreline. The misclassifications thus did not allow use of the Py-MS technique as a relevant tool for authentication of oyster origin. The assessment of the potential of the virtual SPME-MS fingerprints to discriminate the production area of oysters was undertaken on a part of the sample set. The virtual SPME-MS data were pretreated according to two methods, filtering of raw data (FRD) and comprehensive combinatory standard correction (CCSC), a recently developed chemometric method used for the correction of instrumental signal drifts in MS systems. The results obtained with the virtual SPME-MS fingerprints are promising because this technique, when the data were pretreated by the CCSC method, led to a successful discrimination of the oyster samples not only according to shoreline but also according to production region. This study confirms that an efficient correction method (CCSC) of instrumental drifts can considerably increase the discriminative information contained in the volatile fraction of food products.

Olfactometric determination of the most potent odor-active compounds in salmon muscle (Salmo salar) smoked by using four smoke generation techniques.

The volatile compounds of salmon fillets smoked according to four smoked generation techniques (smoldering, thermostated plates, friction, and liquid smoke) were investigated. The main odor-active compounds were identified by gas chromatography coupled with olfactometry and mass spectrometry. Only the odorant volatile compounds detected by at least six judges (out of eight) were identified as potent odorants. Phenolic compounds and guaiacol derivatives were the most detected compounds in the olfactometric profile whatever the smoking process and could constitute the smoky odorant skeleton of these products. They were recovered in the aromatic extracts of salmon smoked by smoldering and by friction, which were characterized by 18 and 25 odor-active compounds, respectively. Furannic compounds were more detected in products smoked with thermostated plates characterized by 26 odorants compounds. Finally, the 27 odorants of products treated with liquid smoke were significantly different from the three others techniques applying wood pyrolysis because pyridine derivatives and lipid oxidation products were perceived in the aroma profile.

Effect of bacterial interactions on the spoilage of cold-smoked salmon.

Cold-smoked salmon is a lightly preserved fish product in which a mixed microbial flora develops during storage and where the interactive behaviour of micro-organisms may contribute to their growth and spoilage activity. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the bacterial interactions between the main species contaminating the cold-smoked salmon on bacterial growth, chemical and sensory changes, and spoilage. First, Carnobacterium piscicola, Photobacterium phosphoreum, Lactobacillus sakei, Vibrio sp., Brochothrix thermosphacta and Serratia liquefaciens-like were inoculated as pure cultures on sterile cold-smoked salmon. All bacterial species grew well; Vibrio sp. was the fastest and L. sakei strains developed very rapidly as well with a high maximum cell density on cold-smoked salmon blocks (up to 10(9) cfu g(-1) after 10 days at 8 degrees C). Based on sensory analysis, Vibrio sp. was identified as non-spoilage bacteria, C. piscicola as very lightly and B. thermosphacta as lightly spoiling. L. sakei and S. liquefaciens-like were found to be the most spoiling bacteria. Secondly, C. piscicola and L. sakei, two species frequently occurring in the lactic flora of the product, were inoculated together and each of them in mixed cultures with respectively P. phosphoreum, Vibrio sp., B. thermosphacta, and S. liquefaciens-like. The growth of L. sakei was shown to strongly inhibit most of the co-inoculated strains i.e. P. phosphoreum, B. thermosphacta, S. liquefaciens-like and, to a lesser extent, Vibrio sp. The growth of C. piscicola seemed to be enhanced with B. thermosphacta and to develop earlier with P. phosphoreum and Vibrio sp. Conversely, S. liquefaciens-like and P. phosphoreum were weakly inhibited by C. piscicola. The main observation resulting from the sensory evaluation was the delay in the appearance of the spoilage characteristics in the mixed cultures with L. sakei, in particular L. sakei/ S. liquefaciens-like. On the other hand, the spoilage activity of the non-spoiler strains Vibrio sp. or the moderate spoilage strains B. thermosphacta and C. piscicola was increased when they were associated together. It is concluded that the spoilage behaviour of micro-organisms in mixed culture is significantly different from pure culture and explain the difficulty to find robust quality indices for this product.

Effect of inoculation of Carnobacterium divergens V41, a bio-preservative strain against Listeria monocytogenes risk, on the microbiological, chemical and sensory quality of cold-smoked salmon.

The aim of this study was to develop a bio-preservation strategy for cold-smoked salmon (CSS) by the use of lactic acid bacteria previously selected for their capability to inhibit the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in the product. The spoiling potential of three Carnobacterium strains (Carnobacterium divergens V41, Carnobacterium piscicola V1 and SF668) was tested in sterile CSS blocks inoculated by 10(4-5) CFU g(-)(1) and stored under vacuum for 9 days at 4 degrees C followed by 19 days at 8 degrees C. C. divergens V41 grew a little faster than the other strains and none of the three carnobacteria showed any adverse effect on quality of the product, i.e. no off-odour detected by a trained panel, no total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) production, no acidification and no biogenic amine except a slight production of tyramine. An application on commercial CSS was tested by spraying C. divergens V41 (10(4-5) CFU g(-1)) on slices of four batches freshly processed in different smoke-houses. Microbial, chemical and sensory characteristics were weekly compared to a control during 4 weeks of vacuum storage. When the natural microflora was initially weak (two batches<20 CFU g(-1)), C. divergens V41 quickly reached 10(7-8) CFU g(-1) and a slight inhibition of endogenous Enterobacteriaceae, lactobacilli and yeasts was observed. The presence of C. divergens V41 was slightly detected (odour and flavour) but none of the sample was considered as spoiled by the sensory panel. When the natural microflora was initially high (2 batches>10(4-5) CFU g(-1)), no effect on the microflora, TVBN and biogenic amine production, nor on the sensory characteristics was observed in presence of C. divergens V41. In conclusion, bio-preservation of CSS using lactic acid bacteria such as C. divergens V41 is a promising way to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as L. monocytogenes with low effect on the quality of the product.