Percepción y consecuencias verbales: un análisis interconductual / Perception and Verbal Consequences: An Interbehavioral Analysis / Percepção verbal e consequências: uma análise intercomportamental

Para evaluar el efecto de distintos tipos de consecuencias verbales sobre la percepción de trayectorias en estudiantes universitarios de optometría, se utilizó la tarea de "encontrar un móvil extraviado" consistente en presentar en la pantalla de una computadora a "Caperucita Roja" caminando con dirección a un bosque siguiendo distintas trayectorias (horizontal, vertical, diagonal a 15º, diagonal a 45º y en zigzag). Transcurrido un tiempo desde el internamiento y desaparición en el bosque (demoras de 1, 2 o 4 segundos), se solicitó a los participantes colocar el puntero en la zona del bosque donde podría encontrarse Caperucita (i.e., respuesta de localización). Los grupos independientes de estudiantes universitarios recibieron puntos por sus respuestas correctas, pero también diferentes consecuencias verbales: (a) correcto/incorrecto, (b) especificación de parámetros del error, y (c) consecuencias autoadministradas. Un grupo control solo recibió puntos por sus respuestas correctas. Los resultados muestran mayor precisión de la respuesta de localización en los participantes que recibieron consecuencias que especificaban los parámetros del error, en las trayectorias horizontal y vertical, y con las demoras más breves. Se discute la función disposicional de las consecuencias verbales como mediadoras de la percepción de trayectorias

To evaluate the effects of different types of verbal con-sequences on trajectory perception, a task of "finding a lost mobile object" was used. In that task, Little Red Riding Hood was presented on a computer screen, walking towards a forest, following different paths (horizontal, vertical, diagonal at 15º, diagonal at 45°, and zigzag). Few seconds after her entry and disap-pearance in the forest (delays of 1, 2, or 4 seconds), participants were asked to place the pointer on the area of the forest where she might be found. Indepen-dent groups of university students received different verbal consequences for their responses: a) correct/incorrect, b) specification of error parameters, and c) self-administered consequences. A control group only received points for their correct responses. The results show higher accuracy in the participants who received consequences that specified the error parameters in the horizontal and vertical trajectories with the shortest de-lays. The dispositional function of verbal consequences as mediators in trajectory perception is discussed

Para avaliar o efeito de diferentes tipos de consequên-cias verbais na percepção de trajetórias, foi utilizada a tarefa de "encontrar o objeto móbil perdido", que con-siste em apresentar "chapeuzinho vermelho" na tela de um computador caminhando em direção a uma floresta seguindo diferentes trajetórias (horizontal , vertical, 15º diagonal, 45º diagonal e ziguezague). Após algum tempo decorrido desde a entrada e desaparecimento na floresta (atrasos de 1, 2 ou 4 segundos), os participantes foram solicitados a colocar o ponteiro na área da flores-ta onde chapeuzinho vermelho poderia ser encontrada (ex. resposta de localização). Grupos independentes de estudantes universitários receberam pontos por suas respostas corretas, mas também diferentes consequên-cias verbais: a) correto / incorreto, b) especificação de parâmetros de erro, e c) consequências autoadminis-tradas. Um grupo de controle só recebeu pontos por suas respostas corretas. Os resultados mostram maior precisão da resposta de localização nos participantes que receberam consequências que especificaram os parâmetros de erro, nas trajetórias horizontal e vertical, e com os menores atrasos. Discute-se a função dispo-sicional das consequências verbais como mediadoras da percepção das trajetórias

Effects of variable durations of food availability on interval time-place learning with pigeons Columba Livia.

We assessed the effects of variable durations of food availability on an interval time-place learning task. 3 pigeons were exposed to a task in which food could be obtained for responses in one of four feeders according to an RI 25 s during 3 min, after which, food could be obtained on a different feeder according to the same schedule. The correct feeder changed following a fixed sequence that was repeated four times throughout the session. After 50 training sessions, an Open Hopper Test was conducted, after which, the second training condition ensued. This condition was like the first one with the exception that the availability period could be either 1,2,3, or 6 min long. A second test was conducted after 50 sessions of this training. Another group of 3 birds experienced these conditions in the reverse order. Data suggest that birds solved the task via interval timing under the fixed duration condition, and via ordinal timing when faced with variable durations. Birds learned the fixed sequence involved in the task under both conditions. Although the present data agree with previous research exploring variability in TPL tasks, they do not necessarily support previous claims for an asymmetrical role of spatial and temporal information in these tasks.

Evidence of non-circadian timing in a low response-cost daily Time-Place Learning task with pigeons Columba Livia.

Previous research has shown that rats require high response cost in order to display circadian timing in daily Time-Place Learning (TPL) tasks. For many possible reasons, no explicit effort to explore the effects of response cost on the performance of other species in these tasks has been made. Therefore, the present paper explores the effects of response cost on pigeon's performance on a daily TPL task. Head entry responses were reinforced according to a Random Interval schedule of reinforcement on one feeder during morning sessions and on another feeder during afternoon sessions. Feeders were located 8 cm apart for one group of birds (Group Near) and 56 cm apart for another group (Group Far). After 50 training sessions, testing began. Test sessions consisted of skipping either the morning or the afternoon session. Results show that most birds in the near group respond primarily on the opposite feeder during the first 20 s of the test sessions and then they switch to the correct feeder. On the other hand, most birds in Group Far respond at the same rate on both opposite and correct feeders during 20 s, and then they respond primarily on the correct feeder. The possibility of these data revealing non circadian timing for birds in a low response-cost daily TPL task is discussed along with the implications of such a finding for previous literature that claims that this type of performance could be unique to rats.

Elección entre ayudar vs no ayudar: nivel de dominio en la tarea / Choice between helping vs not helping: level of mastery in the task

Los estudios llevados a cabo para identificar las condiciones que promueven el altruismo han sugerido que factores como las consecuencias situacionales y la introducción de componentes verbales en una tarea probabilizan la elección de los individuos de trabajar bajo contingencias compartidas. No obstante, se ha encontrado que no basta la presencia de dichas variables para garantizar que los individuos ayuden. Se ha considerado que la capacidad conductual para desempeñarse de manera efectiva en una tarea (i.e. nivel de dominio) es una variable disposicional que puede facilitar o impedir la elección de los individuos de trabajar bajo contingencias compartidas. Con base en esto, el objetivo del presente trabajo consistió en evaluar los efectos de distintos niveles de dominio en una tarea aritmética (alto y bajo) sobre la elección ayudar/ no ayudar a un compañero a realizar operaciones aritméticas. La tarea consistía en realizar distintos tipos de operaciones aritméticas (sumas, restas, multiplicaciones y divisiones) para obtener puntos. Una vez que acumulaban 20 puntos, se le presentaba a los participantes la opción de elegir entre ayudar a un compañero a resolver operaciones o continuar con su tarea. Los resultados muestran que los participantes con dominio aritmético alto eligieron ayudar a su compañero con mayor frecuencia que los participantes con dominio aritmético bajo (40% vs 23%, respectivamente). Se discute la importancia del nivel de dominio de tarea como un factor disposicional en la elección entre ayudar o no ayudar.

Studies carried out to identify conditions that promote altruism have suggested that factors such as situational consequences and the introduction of verbal components in a task probabilize the individuals' choice to work under shared contingencies. However, it has been found that the presence of these variables is not enough to guarantee that individuals help. It has been considered that the behavioral capacity to perform effectively in a task (i.e. domain level) is a dispositional variable that can facilitate or impede the choice of individuals to work under shared contingencies. Based on this, the objective of this work consisted of evaluating the effects of different levels of domain in an arithmetic task (high and low) on the choice of helping / not helping a partner to perform arithmetic operations. The task was to perform different types of arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) to obtain points. Once they accumulated 20 points, participants were presented with the option to choose between helping a partner to solve operations or continue with their task. The results show that participants with high arithmetic domain chose to help their partner more frequently than the participants with low arithmetic domain (40% vs. 23%, respectively). The importance of the task domain level as a dispositional factor in the choice between helping or not helping is discussed.

Comportamiento pernicioso: el efecto de las consecuencias en la elección entre perjudicar/no perjudicar a un compañero / Pernicious Behavior: the Effect of the Consequences in the Choice between to Harm/do not harm a Classmate

Resumen La presente investigación, se realizó con base en dos supuestos interconductuales: 1) el comportamiento es susceptible de modularse por factores históricos y/o situacionales; 2) el comportamiento pernicioso puede regularse por factores situacionales como las consecuencias. El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto de las consecuencias (positivas y negativas) sobre la elección entre perjudicar o no a un compañero durante la solución de una tarea. Participaron 35 estudiantes universitarios distribuidos aleatoriamente en cinco grupos. La tarea experimental consistió en la solución de operaciones aritméticas proporcionalmente puntuadas (1 a 5 puntos). El principal resultado fue que las consecuencias negativas por no perjudicar modulan mayoritariamente la ocurrencia de comportamiento pernicioso. Los resultados se discuten en términos del papel regulador de las consecuencias (en relación con el comportamiento pernicioso) en tanto factor situacional.

Abstract This research was based on two main interbehavioral suppositions: 1) Behavior is likely modulated by historical and/or situational factors; 2) Pernicious behavior can be regulated by situational factors such as the consequences. The objective was to evaluate the effect of the consequences (positives and negatives) on the choice between to harm or do not harm a classmate while solving a task. Thirty-five college students were randomly assigned into one of five experimental groups. The task consisted in solving arithmetic operations proportionally scored from 1 to 5 points. The results are discussed in terms of the regulatory role of the consequences (in relation to pernicious behavior) as a situational factor. The main result was that the negative consequences by the choice of do not harm the partner mainly modulated the occurrence of pernicious behavior.

Effects of variable sequences of food availability on interval time-place learning by pigeons.

The effects of within session variability of the sequences of food availability in a 16 period Time Place Learning (TPL) task on the performance of pigeons were assessed. Two groups of birds were exposed to two conditions. For group 1 (N=3), the first condition consisted of a TPL task in which food could be obtained according to a Random Interval (RI) 25s schedule of reinforcement in one of four feeders, the correct feeder changed every 3min. The same sequence was repeated four times within every training session (Fixed Sequence). The second condition was exactly the same as the first one with the exception that the sequence in which the correct feeder changed was randomized, yielding a total of four randomized sequences of food availability each session (Variable Sequence). An Open Hopper Test (OHT) was conducted at the end of each condition. Birds in group 2 (N=3) experienced the same conditions but in the reverse order. Results showed high percent correct responses for both group of birds under both conditions. However, birds were able to time the availability period's duration only under the Fixed Sequence condition, as shown by anticipation, anticipation of depletion and persistence of visiting patterns on the OHT. The implications of these results to Gallistels (1990) tripartite time-place-event memory code model are discussed, pointing out that these results are in line with previous findings about the important role that spatial parameters of a TPL task can play, for accurate timing was precluded when a variable sequence was employed.

Human strategies for solving a time-place learning task: the role of counting and following verbal cues.

Two experiments were conducted to assess the emergence of time-place learning in humans. In experiment 1, a computer based software was designed in which participants had to choose to enter one of four rooms in an abandoned house search for a zombie every 3-15s. Zombies could be found in only one of these rooms every trial in 3 min periods during the 12 min sessions. After 4 training sessions, participants were exposed to a probe session in which zombies could be found in any room on every trial. Almost all participants behaved as if they were timing the availability intervals: they anticipated the changes in the location of the zombie and they persisted in their performance patterns during the probe session; however, verbal reports revealed that they were counting the number of trials in each period in order to decide when to switch between rooms. In the second experiment, the task was modified in two ways: counting was made harder by using three different intertrial ranges within each session: 2-6s, 2-11s and 2-16s. Second, labels were displaced during the final session to assess whether participants learned to click on a given place or to follow a set of verbal cues. We found that participants did not notice the label changes suggesting that they learned to click on a given place, and that a win/stay-lose/shift strategy was clearly used to decide when to switch rooms in the second experiment. The implications of verbal behavior when assessing time-place learning with humans and the possible differences in this process between humans and animals are discussed.

Comportamiento inteligente y creativo: efectos de distintos tipos de instrucciones / Intelligent and creative behavior: effects of different types of instructions

En este estudio se evaluaron los efectos de distintos tipos de instrucciones en el desempeño en el entrenamiento, pruebas de transferencia y pruebas de comportamiento creativo empleando procedimientos de discriminación condicional. Se distribuyó a 20 estudiantes aleatoriamente en cuatro grupos que recibieron distintos tipos de instrucciones: (a) instrucciones inespecíficas; (b) instrucciones instanciales; (c) instrucciones relacionales parciales, y (d) instrucciones relacionales completas. Los resultados confirman que las instrucciones inespecíficas se correlacionan con desempeños poco efectivos en el entrenamiento, mientras que las instrucciones instanciales propician una mayor efectividad en el entrenamiento, incluso superior que las instrucciones relacionales (parciales y completas), aunque estas se asociaron con mejores desempeños en las pruebas de transferencia y de comportamiento creativo. Se discute que la efectividad del desempeño en que se asienta el ulterior desarrollo del comportamiento inteligente y creativo se adquiere a partir de contactos relacionales con las contingencias de la tarea propiciados por las instrucciones relacionales.

This study assessed the effects of different types of instructions on performance in training, transfer tests and creative behavior testing, using conditional discrimination procedures. Twenty students were randomly assigned to four groups that received different types of instructions: (a) non-specific instructions; (b) instantiated instructions; (c) partial relational instructions, and (d) complete relational instructions. The results showed that non-specific instructions were correlated with ineffective performance in training, while instantiated instructions promoted greater effectiveness in training - even higher than relational instructions (partial or total) - although the latter were associated with the best performance in transfer tests and creative behavior. The article discusses how the effectiveness of performance forms the basis for the subsequent development of intelligent and creative behaviors and is acquired from relational contacts with the contingencies of the task, as fostered by relational instructions.

Efectos de la Respuesta del Lector y del Uso de Ejemplos sobre la Composición Escrita / Efeitos da Resposta do Leitor e do Uso de Exemplos sobre a Composição Escrita / Effects of Reader Response and Use of Examples on Written Composition

Se evaluó el papel de la respuesta del lector y del uso de ejemplos en la elaboración de procedimientos de un escritor en estudiantes universitarios, en dos sesiones: en la primera 36 escritores describieron una figura y una ruta en un mapa; en la segunda, los escritores fueron distribuidos en tres grupos: DM: 12 escritores modificaron sus descripciones con base en ejemplos de procedimientos similares y en dibujos elaborados por 12 lectores; D: 12 escritores modificaron sus textos con base en dibujos de 12 lectores y SDSM: 12 escritores hicieron modificaciones sin ver dibujos ni ejemplos. Los grupos DM y D hicieron descripciones más precisas. Se discute la relevancia de analizar las interacciones escritoras en función del propósito y la complejidad de la tarea.

The article presents the results of a research project aimed at evaluating the role of reader response and the use of examples in the writing procedures used by university students. Two sessions were held. In the first one, 36 writers described a figure and a route on a map; in the second, the writers were divided into three groups: DM: 12 writers modified their descriptions on the basis of examples of similar procedures and of drawings made by 12 readers; D: 12 writers modified their texts on the basis of the drawings made by 12 readers; and SDSM: 12 writers made changes without having seen either drawings or examples. Groups DM and D produced more precise descriptions. The paper discusses the relevance of analyzing writing interactions with respect to the purpose and complexity of the task.

Avaliou-se o papel da resposta do leitor e do uso de exemplos na elaboração de procedimentos de um escritor em estudantes universitários, em duas sessões: na primeira, 36 escritores descreveram uma figura e uma rota em um mapa; na segunda, os escritores foram distribuídos em três grupos: DM -12 escritores modificaram suas descrições com base em exemplos de procedimentos similares e em desenhos elaborados por 12 leitores; D -12 escritores modificaram seus textos com base em desenhos de 12 leitores, e SDSM -12 escritores fizeram modificações sem ver desenhos nem exemplos. Os grupos DM e D fizeram descrições mais precisas. Discute-se a relevância de analisar as interações escritoras em função do propósito e da complexidade da tarefa.

Composición esciita en universitarios: papel del contacto visual en la revisión de textos / Writte compositiion in university students: role of the visual contact on the text revision

Se evaluó el papel del contacto visual del escritor con lo que escribe, sobre la coherencia y precisión. 24 estudiantes de psicología leyeron un artículo de un diario, después escribieron una cita y su opinión. En la segunda sesión, realizaron tareas similares pero leyeron otro artículo. Se formaron 2 grupos, en uno, los participantes no tenían contacto visual con lo que escribían (SCV) y en el otro si tenían contacto visual (CV). El grupo CV escribió textos más precisos. Ambos grupos alcanzaron índices de coherencia similares. Se discute que la relevancia de revisar lo que se escribe depende de otros elementos de la interacción escritora específica. Se sugiere revalorar el concepto de revisión en el análisis de la elaboración de textos.

We evaluated the role of the visual contact with what the writer writes, on the coherence and precision. 24 students of psychology read an article of a diary, later they wrote a quote and their opinion. In the second session, conducted similar tasks but read another article. There were 2 groups, in one, the participants did not have visual contact with what was writing (NCV) and in other one did have visual contact (CV). The group CV wrote more precise texts. Both groups reached similar indexes of coherence. There is discussed that the relevancy of revision what one writes depends on other elements of the specific written interaction. It is suggested to revaluate the concept of revision in the analysis of the elaboration of texts.

Morfología y función en el análisis empírico del ajuste lector / . Morphology and function in the empirical analysis of reading adjustment

En este estudio se evalúan los efectos de variar el tipo de criterio y el tipo de morfología del hacer estudiantil sobre el porcentaje de respuestas correctas en tareas de ajuste lector. Participaron 20 estudiantes universitarios asignados a uno de cuatro grupos que se distinguían por la constancia - variabilidad del criterio y la constancia - variabilidad de la morfología de la respuesta para satisfacer el criterio. Se aplicó una evaluación inicial a todos los participantes, un entrenamiento y una evaluación final, semejante a la primera. Se encontró que, en general, el entrenamiento variable de criterios y morfología tuvo mayores efectos positivos sobre el desempeño en la segunda evaluación, en contraste con los grupos expuestos a un solo criterio o a una sola morfología. Los resultados permiten discutir el papel de la morfología como estrategia de aprendizaje efectiva al margen del criterio funcional, del dominio y del texto leído.

The present study evaluated the effects of varying the criterion and the morphology of the percentage of correct response upon reading adjustment tasks. Participants were 20 voluntary students, distributed in four groups, which were differentiated by the certainty - variability of the criterion and the certainty - variability of themorphology of response to satisfy the criterion. All participants were exposed to a first evaluation, training and finally a second evaluation similar to the first one was applied. Results question the role of morphology as a comprehension strategy independent of a functional criterion, domain and of the text itself.

Análisis funcional del conocimiento previo: sus efectos sobre el ajuste lector / Functional analysis of prior knowledge: its effects upon reading adjustment / Análise funcional do conhecimento prévio: seus efeitos sobre o ajuste leitor

Se evaluaron los efectos de distintos tipos funcionales de contactos previos con los referentes de un texto (historia de referencialidad e historia situacional efectiva) sobre la ejecución de estudiantes universitarios en una prueba de ajuste lector. Participaron cinco grupos experimentales diferenciados por el tipo de historia de contacto construida mediante un entrenamiento. Cada tipo de historia era progresivamente más complejo: Contextual, Suplementario, Selector, Sustitutivo Referencial y Sustitutivo No Referencial Un sexto grupo (control) no tuvo ningún entrenamiento. Los seis grupos fueron posteriormente expuestos a la prueba de ajuste lector, consistente en preguntas de diferente complejidad funcional. Los resultados revelan una función positiva entre la complejidad de la historia de contacto y el porcentaje total de aciertos en la prueba de ajuste lector (excepto en el grupo con la historia más compleja). Se discuten los resultados enfatizando las funciones disposicionales de los diferentes tipos de historia en el ajuste lector, contrastándolas con la noción tradicional de conocimiento previo.

This study evaluated the effects of different types of previous contacts with the referents of a text (referential history and effective situational history) on the performance of University students on a reading adjustment test. Five experimental groups differentiated from each other by the type of history elaborated on a training session participated in the study. The types of histories were progressively more complex: Contextual, Supplementary, Selective, Referential Substitutive and Non-Referential Substitutive. For subjects in the control group no history was constructed and they were directly administered the reading adjustment test. Results suggest that there is a direct function between the complexity of the contact history and the percentage of total correct responses in the reading adjustment test (except in the group with the most complex history). Results are analysed emphasizing the dispositional functions of different types of history in reading adjustment, as compared with the traditional notion of prior knowledge.

Foram avaliados os efeitos de vários tipos funcionais de contatos prévios mediante os referentes de um texto (historia de referência e historia situacional efetiva) sobre o desempenho de estudantes universitários em uma prova de ajuste leitor. Participaram cinco grupos experimentais diferençados pela classe de história de contato construída depois de um treinamento. Cada classe de história era progressivamente mais complexa: contextual, suplementaria, seletora, substitutiva referencial e substitutiva não referencial. Um sexto grupo não teve treinamento. Posteriormente, aos seis grupos lhes foi aplicada uma prova de ajuste leitor, consistente em perguntas de diferente complexidade funcional. Os resultados indicam uma função positiva entre a complexidade da história de contato e a porcentagem total de acertos na prova de ajuste leitor (salvo no grupo que tenha a história mais complexa). São analisados os resultados enfatizando nas funções disposicionais das diversas classes de história no ajuste leitor, contrastando-as com a noção tradicional de conhecimento prévio.

Factores lingüísticos y consecuencias situacionales en la elección de estudiantes universitarios entre colaborar y no colaborar en tareas académicas: un análisis experimental / Linguistic factors and situational consequences in the choice of university students between collaborate and not collaborate in academic tasks: an experimental analysis / Fatores lingüísticos e conseqüências situacionais na escolha de estudantes universitários entre colaborar e não colaborar em tarefas acadêmicas: uma análise experimental

Utilizando una tarea de elección "ayudar/no ayudar" se determinó en qué medida la elección que hacen estudiantes universitarios entre colaborar o no colaborar con un compañero en una tarea académica es influida por: a) interacciones lingüísticas previas relacionadas, positiva o negativamente, con la conducta colaborativa o solidaria, y b) por las consecuencias situacionales, positivas o negativas, que los estudiantes reciben por su elección. Para esto se formaron seis grupos experimentales, definidos por la combinación del tipo de interacciones lingüísticas previas y el tipo de consecuencias. El grupo control no participó en interacciones lingüísticas previas ni recibió consecuencias por la elección de colaborar o no colaborar. Los resultados muestran que la mayoría de los participantes prefirió trabajar individualmente sin colaborar con su compañero, aunque aquéllos que participaron en interacciones lingüísticas positivas, y además recibieron consecuencias positivas por colaborar, eligieron colaborar en mayor proporción que el resto de los participantes.

A "helping/not helping" election task was used to evaluate to what extent the choice made by university students between collaborating or not collaborating with a colleague in an academic task was influenced by: a) prior linguistic interactions, positively or negatively related to the collaborative or supportive behavior, and b) the consequences, positive or negative, that students receive for their choice .In order to achieve this aim, six experimental groups were formed, defined by the combination of the type of previous linguistic interactions and the type of consequences received. The control group was not involved in prior linguistic interactions and did not receive consequences for choosing to collaborate or not collaborate. Results showed that most participants preferred to work individually without collaborating with his partner, although those involved in positive linguistic interactions who also received positive consequences for choosing to collaborate, chose to collaborate in greater proportion than the rest of participants.

Mediante uma tarefa de escolha (ajudar ou não ajudar), foi determinado em que medida a escolha de estudantes universitários entre colaborar ou não colaborar com um parceiro em uma tarefa é influenciada por: a. Interações lingüísticas prévias relacionadas, positiva o negativamente, com a conduta de colaboração ou solidaria. b. As conseqüências situacionais, positivas ou negativas, que a escolha acarreta aos estudantes. Foram conformados seis grupos experimentais, determinados pela combinação da classe de interações lingüísticas prévias e à classe de conseqüências. O grupo controle não interveio nas interações lingüísticas prévias nem atraiu conseqüências pela escolha de colaborar ou não colaborar. Os resultados mostram que a maioria dos participantes preferiu trabalhar individualmente sem ajudar ao seu parceiro. Os que participaram nas interações lingüísticas positivas e decidiram colaborar um pouco mais que o resto de participantes atraiu conseqüências positivas.

Efectos de consecuencias positivas y negativas sobre la conducta altruista / Effects of positive and negative consequences on altruistic behavior

Para evaluar los efectos de distintos tipos de consecuencias (positivas y negativas) por ayudar y por no ayudar, se utilizó una preparación “ayudar/no ayudar” en la que estudiantes universitarios debían resolver operaciones aritméticas de distinta complejidad para acumular puntos intercambiables por un disco compacto, con la posibilidad de aceptar o rehusar ayudar a un compañero virtual que no podía acumular sus respectivos puntos. Los resultados muestran que los participantes prefirieron ayudar a su compañero sólo cuando recibieron consecuencias negativas por no ayudar, aunque la calidad de la ayuda fue inferior a la calidad de la ejecución en su propia tarea. Se discute la relevancia diferencial de las consecuencias positivas y negativas en relación con interpretaciones recientes que juzgan irrelevantes las consecuencias en el control de la conducta social.

To evaluate the effects of different types of consequences (positive and negative) for helping and not helping, was used a preparation in which each participant had to solve arithmetical operations of different complexity to accumulate interchangeable points by a compact disc. During the task the participants could accept or refuse themselves to help a virtual peer who could not accumulate his points. The results show that participants did prefer to help their virtual peer only when negative consequences for not helping were presented. Even though the quality of the help for peer was inferior compared to the execution shown in the participant own task.

Programa de investigación para el análisis funcional del ajuste lector / A research program for the functional analysis of reading adjustment

En el presente trabajo se analiza de manera general el modo en que desde perspectivas cognitivas se aborda la comprensión lectora y se presenta una forma alternativa para su estudio. Desde la perspectiva interconductual se caracteriza a la comprensión lectora como ajuste lector, el cual puede estructurarse en cinco niveles diferenciales de complejidad. Dicha caracterización permite nuevas formas de evaluación, lo cual posibilita identificar diferencias funcionales en el ajuste lector. Se incluye una breve reseña del programa de investigación para el estudio del ajuste lector, así como sus prospectivas.

The present paper analyzes the general way in which cognitive perspectives approach reading comprehension and offers an alternative for the study of this concept. From the Interbehavioral perspective reading comprehension is characterized as reading adjustment, which can be structured in five different levels of complexity. Such a characterization allows new forms of evaluation which makes it possible to identify functional differences in reading adjustment. A brief review of the research program for the study of reading adjustment as well as its prospective are included.

Inteligencia, creatividad y desarrollo psicológico / Intelligence, creativity and psychological development

Se analizan de manera general las ambigüedades en el uso del término creatividad, y se presenta el Modelo Interconductual de Comportamiento Creativo (MICC) en el que se propone una continuidad entre el comportamiento inteligente y el creativo, y en el que se reconocen como dimensiones relevantes de la inteligencia la variabilidad y la efectividad, en tanto que la correspondiente dimensión de la creatividad es la originalidad de criterios ante situaciones contingencialmente ambiguas. Se describen los resultados generales de los estudios derivados del MICC y se delinea la forma en que éstos pueden contribuir al replanteamiento de la labor del psicólogo en escenarios educativos.

This article carries out a general analysis of the ambiguities found in the psychological literature about the concept of creativity and presents the Interbehavioral Model of Creative Behavior (IMCB) which states that there is a continuum between intelligent and creative behavior, and that variability and effectiveness are recognized as relevant dimensions of intelligence, whereas the corresponding dimension for creativity is the originality of criteria before ambiguous situations (in terms of contingency relations). The results of the studies derived from the IMCB are described. A general outline of the way in which these studies may contribute to redefining the psychologist’s role in educational settings is also presented.

Generación de criterios de igualación: un caso de conducta creativa / Generation of matching criteria: a case of creative behavior

Concibiendo conducta creativa como generación de criterios novedosos que dan lugar a contingencias distintas (Carpio, 1999; 2005), se compararon los efectos de dos niveles de variabilidad en las condiciones de entrenamiento sobre el desempeño efectivo en pruebas de transferencia y sobre la generación de criterios de igualación. Participaron 20 estudiantes universitarios asignados aleatoriamente a cuatro grupos experimentales que se distinguieron por el nivel de variabilidad en los problemas a resolver.

Efectos de la consistencia e inconsistencia de las relaciones intrusivo-reforzador y muestra-reforzador en igualación a la muestra / Effects of the intrusive-reinforcer and sample-reinforcer relationship in matching to sample

Se evaluaron los efectos de presentar estímulos intrusivos durante el intervalo muestra-comparativo en tareas de igualación a la muestra. En el grupo consistente (C) el estímulo intrusivo y el estímulo muestra fueron asociados con el mismo reforzador; en el grupo inconsistente (IC) el estímulo intrusivo fue asociado con un reforzador distinto; en el grupo no correlacionado (NC) se presentaron tanto estímulos asociados con el mismo reforzador como estímulos asociados con reforzadores distintos; en el grupo control (CO) no se presentaron estímulos intrusivos. En todos los grupos se alargó el intervalo muestra-comparativo desde 0 s hasta 16 s. Se encontró que el índice de discriminación se mantuvo por encima de 0,8 en los grupos C e IC, mientras que en los grupos NC y CO el índice disminuyó conforme se alargó la demora. Los resultados se discuten en términos de las correlaciones muestra-intrusivo-reforzador

The effects of presenting intrusive stimuli during the sample-comparative interval in delayed matching-to-sample task were evaluated. In the consistent group (C) the intrusive stimulus and the sample stimulus were associated with the same reinforcer; in the inconsistent group (IC) the intrusive stimulus was associated with a different reinforcer to the associated with the sample stimulus; in the non-correlated group (NC) so much stimuli associated with the same reforzador like stimuli associated with different reinforcer to the associated with the stimulus were presented it shows; in the control group (CO) intrusive stimuli were not presented. In all groups the sample-comparative interval was lengthened from 0 s up to 16 s. It was found that the discrimination index was above 0.8 in C and IC groups, while in the NC and CO groups the discrimination index diminished conforms the delay was lengthened. The results are discussed in terms of the sample-intrusive-reinforcer correlations