Cost-sharing and associated factors in the Peruvian private health care system.

BACKGROUND: The costs associated with healthcare are of critical importance to both decision-makers and users, given the limited resources allocated to the health sector. However, the available scientific evidence on healthcare costs in low- and middle-income countries, such as Peru, is scarce. In the Peruvian context, the health system is fragmented, and the private health insurance and its financing models have received less research attention. We aimed to analyse user cost-sharing and associated factors within the private healthcare system. METHODS: Our study was cross-sectional, using open data from the Electronic Transaction Model of Standardized Billing Data-TEDEF-SUSALUD, between 2021-2022. Our unit of analysis is the user's medical bills. We considered the total amount of cost-sharing, proportion of total payments as cost-sharing, and cost-sharing as a proportion of minimum salaries. We use a multiple regression model to perform the analyses. RESULTS: Our study included 5,286,556 health services provided to users of the private health insurance in Peru. We found a significant difference was observed in the cost-sharing for hospitalization-related services, with an average of 419.64 soles per day (95% CI: 413.44 to 425.85). Also, we identified that for hospitalization-related services per day is, on average, 0.41 (95% CI: 0.41 to 0.41) minimum salaries more expensive than outpatient care, although cost-sharing per day of hospitalization represent on average only 14% of the total amount submitted. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides a detailed overview of cost-sharing in the private healthcare system in Peru and the factors associated with them. Policymakers can use the study's finding that higher cost-sharing for inpatient hospitalization compared to outpatient care in private insurance can create inequities in access to healthcare to design policies aimed at reducing these costs and promoting a more equitable and accessible healthcare system in Peru.

Efecto de factores sociodemográficos en la mortalidad del COVID-19 en Costa Rica: un enfoque geográfico

Introducción: La enfermedad por coronavirus (COVID-19) se ha extendido entre la población de todo el país y ha tenido un gran impacto a nivel mundial. Sin embargo, existen diferencias geográficas importantes en la mortalidad de COVID-19 entre las diferentes regiones del mundo y en Costa Rica. Objetivo: Explorar el efecto de algunos de los factores sociodemográficos en la mortalidad de COVID-19 en pequeñas divisiones geográficas o cantones de Costa Rica. Métodos: Usamos registros oficiales y aplicamos un modelo de regresión clásica de Poisson y un modelo de regresión ponderada geográficamente. Resultados: Obtuvimos un criterio de información de Akaike (AIC) más bajo con la regresión ponderada (927.1 en la regresión de Poison versus 358.4 en la regresión ponderada). Los cantones con un mayor riesgo de mortalidad por COVID-19 tuvo una población más densa; bienestar material más alto; menor proporción de cobertura de salud y están ubicadas en el área del Pacífico de Costa Rica. Conclusiones: Una estrategia de intervención de COVID-19 específica debería concentrarse en áreas de la costa pacífica con poblaciones más densas, mayor bienestar material y menor población por unidad de salud.

Introduction: The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has spread among the population of Costa Rica and has had a great global impact. However, there are important geographic differences in mortality from COVID-19 among world regions and within Costa Rica. Objective: To explore the effect of some sociodemographic factors on COVID-19 mortality in the small geographic divisions or cantons of Costa Rica. Methods: We used official records and applied a classical epidemiological Poisson regression model and a geographically weighted regression model. Results: We obtained a lower Akaike Information Criterion with the weighted regression (927.1 in Poisson regression versus 358.4 in weighted regression). The cantons with higher risk of mortality from COVID-19 had a denser population; higher material well-being; less population by health service units and are located near the Pacific coast. Conclusions: A specific COVID-19 intervention strategy should concentrate on Pacific coast areas with denser population, higher material well-being and less population by health service units.

Mortalidad entre Jóvenes Inmigrantes Nicaragüenses en Costa Rica, 2000-2017 / Mortality of young Nicaraguan inmigrants in Costa Rica during the 2000-2017 period

Introducción: La pobreza, discriminación y el aislamiento social, son elementos que afectan a las personas inmigrantes nicaragüenses residentes en Costa Rica, condiciones que pueden afectar las tasas de mortalidad observada en esta población migrante. Objetivo: Determinar las tasas de mortalidad por enfermedades y causas externas en población joven inmigrante nicaragüense y nativos costarricenses en Costa Rica. Materiales y métodos: Con la información de defunciones entre el año 2000 y 2017 y la población del Censo 2011 se calcularon tasas de mortalidad y posteriormente el riesgo relativo (RR) de diferentes causas de mortalidad. Los resultados se compararon con un estudio que analizó este fenómeno entre 1998-2008. Resultados: El 64% de las defunciones de inmigrantes son por causas externas, versus el 57% de los locales. Con respecto a los datos de hace 10 años, hay una disminución de 2 puntos porcentuales de las defunciones por causas externas entre los inmigrantes. Los inmigrantes tienen RR mayores de mortalidad por causas externas (otros accidentes 1,85, homicidios 1,72, accidentes vehiculares 1,22 y suicidios 1,14). Se destaca una disminución de 0,27 y 0,15 del RR de los homicidios y alcoholismo. Conclusiones: Los patrones de mortalidad de los inmigrantes empiezan comportarse como el de la población costarricense.

Introduction: Poverty, discrimination, and social isolation are some elements that affect Nicaraguan immigrants residing in Costa Rica, conditions that have an impact on the mortality figures observed in this migrant population. Objective: To determine mortality rates caused by diseases and external reasons in both the young Nicaraguan immigrant population and native Costa Rican natives. Materials and methods: Data on deaths between 2000 and 2017 and the 2011 Census information of the Costa Rican population were used to calculate mortality rates and the relative risk (RR) associated with different causes of mortality. Results were compared to a study that analyzed this phenomenon between 1998-2008. Results: Compared to the deaths in the Costa Rican population (57%), 64% of deaths in immigrants are due to external causes. With respect to the data from 10 years ago, there is a 2-percentage point reduction in deaths of immigrants caused by external reasons. Immigrants show higher RRs of mortality due to external causes (other accidents 1.85, homicides 1.72, car accidents 1.22, and suicide 1.14). A reduction of 2.27 and 0.15 in the RR of homicides and alcoholism, respectively, is highlighted. Conclusions: Mortality patterns in immigrants begin to behave as those of the Costa Rican population.

Las Bibliotecas públicas como promotoras del envejecimiento activo saludable / Public libraries as promoters of healthy and active elderliness

Resumen Las bibliotecas públicas son por excelencia, las organizaciones que reciben y trabajan con la población adulta mayor. Se presenta un proyecto desarrollado en la Escuela de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información, de la Universidad de Costa Rica, cuyo objetivo general fue desarrollar estrategias lúdico-creativas, para promover la alfabetización informacional en salud en la población adulta y adulta mayor, desde las bibliotecas públicas. Es una investigación cualitativa, en que se aplicó la investigación acción. Los resultados alcanzados muestran que después de la aplicación de talleres lúdico-creativos, las personas adultas mayores aumentaron su conocimiento, interés y destreza en ellos. Así mismo se logró fomentar las relaciones intergeneracionales, pues los talleres fueron desarrollados por estudiantes de Trabajo Comunal Universitario.

Abstract Public libraries are par excellence, the organizations that receive and work with the elderly population. The following is a project developed by the School of Library and Information Sciences of the University of Costa Rica whose general objective was to develop ludic and creative-based strategies to promote informational alphabetization and health in adults and the elderly population from the public libraries. It was a qualitative action-research investigation. Results evince an increase in interest, knowledge, and skills amongst the elderly after the implementation of the ludic and creative workshops. At the same time, it was feasible to promote intergenerational relations since the workshops were implemented by students as part of their Communal University Work.

Tendencias y características de la Mortalidad por Infarto Agudo al Miocardio en Costa Rica de 1970 al 2014 / Trends and characteristics of Acute Myocardial Infarction Mortality in Costa Rica from 1970 to 2014

Resumen Objetivo: analizar las principales características epidemiológicas de la mortalidad por infarto del miocardio en Costa Rica de 1970 al 2014. Métodos: los datos del número de muertos por IAM para todas las edades y de la población del país se obtuvieron consultando anuarios y bases de datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y del Centro de Población de la Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR). Con ellos se obtuvieron las tasas brutas y estandarizadas, "suavizadas" por promedios móviles y quinquenales, así como la relación porcentual con la mortalidad general. Posteriormente, se calcularon las tasas estandarizadas de mortalidad por IAM para el grupo de 35 a 74 años, por sexo y provincia. Resultados: la tendencia permite distinguir dos épocas definidas. Una de ascenso que ocurre desde 1970 hasta finales de la década de los años noventa. La otra en los primeros años del siglo XXI con inclinación hacia el descenso. Esto se observa con las tasas de promedios móviles y quinquenales, especialmente en el grupo de 35 a 74 años (hombres, r=0.99, r2=094, betha=-6.67, p=0.00, mujeres r=0.97, r2=0.94, betha= -6.67, p=0.01, ambos sexos r=0.97, r2=0.94, betha=-7.42, p=0.01). Conclusiones: pese a una leve tendencia a la disminución de la mortalidad por IAM en estos últimos quince años, el IAM continuará siendo un grave problema de salud en Costa Rica y para revertir la situación, tendrá el gobierno nacional que continuar esforzándose en disminuir la prevalencia de los principales factores de riesgo de las ECNT y en mejorar la atención del paciente que tiene la enfermedad.

Abstract Objective: To analyze the mortality and some aspects of the descriptive epidemiology of acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rica from 1970 to 2014. Methods: The number of deaths due to AMI for all ages and the population of the country were obtained through the consultation of yearbooks and the databases of the National Institute of Statistics and the Population Center of the UCR. With them gross and standardized rates were extracted, "smoothed" by moving and five-year averages as well as the percentage relation with the general mortality. Subsequently, the standardized mortality rates for AMI were obtained for the group of 35 to 74 years, according to sex, provinces and socioeconomic regions. Results: The analysis of the trend allows to distinguish two very well-defined periods. One of ascent that happens from 1970 until the end of the decade of the nineties. The other appears with the first years of the 21st century with a clear tendency towards descent. This is observed in the case of rates with moving and five-year averages and very especially, with the group of 35 to 74 years (men, r = 0.99, r2 = 0.94, betha = -6.67, p = 0.00, women r = 0.97, r2 = 0.94, betha = -6.67, p = 0.01, both sexes r = 0.97, r2 = 0.94, betha = -7.42, p = 0.01). Conclusions: Despite a slight tendency to decrease mortality from AMI in the last fifteen years, AMI will continue to be a serious health problem in Costa Rica and to reverse the situation, the national government will have to continue striving to reduce prevalence. of the main risk factors of NCDs and in improving the care of patients who have the disease.

Characteristics of mortality due to ischemic heart disease in Costa Rica from 1970 to 2014.

Objective: To update some important aspects of the descriptive epidemiology of ischemic heart (EIC) disease in Costa Rica during the period 1970-2014. Methods: EIC death rates were obtained in two periods: from 1930 to 1969 and then, for a more specific analysis, from 1970 to 2014, using moving and five-year averages, based on data from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística and the Centro Centroamericano de Población, to analyze them according to age, sex, geographical location and percentage contribution to the general mortality. Information was also obtained to determine the burden of the disease, in this case through Years of Adjusted Life for Disability, Years of Life Lost and Years of Life lost due to Disability. Results: There was a rise in rates in the general population, with greater momentum in the population from 35 to 74 years, up to the five-year period 1995-1999, after which a decline began that apparently stopped during the five-year period 2010-2014 (both sexes: r = 0.9964, r2 = 0.9928, ß = -2.4950, p 0.04; men: r = 0.9994, r2 = 0.9988, ß = -2.770, p = 0.02; women: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, ß = -2.4950, p = 0.07). The highest rates occur in the provinces of the center of the country. It predominates during the whole period in the male sex and represents on average 14% of the general mortality. Conclusions: Mortality due to EIC is in a phase of decline but the increase in obesity and overweight in the country threatens to slow down this trend, at least during the last five years.

Objetivo: Actualizar algunos aspectos importantes de la epidemiología descriptiva de la enfermedad isquémica del corazón (EIC) en Costa Rica durante el periodo 1970-2014. Métodos: Se obtuvieron las tasas de mortalidad por EIC en dos periodos. De 1930 al año 1969 y luego, para un análisis más específico, de 1970 al 2014, utilizando promedios móviles y quinquenios, a partir de datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y del Centro Centroamericano de Población, para analizarlos en relación con edad, sexo, ubicación geográfica y aporte porcentual a la mortalidad general. También se obtuvo información para determinar la carga de la enfermedad, en este caso mediante años de vida ajustados por discapacidad, años de vida perdidos y años de vida perdidos por discapacidad. Resultados: Se apreció ascenso de las tasas en la población general y con mayor empuje en la población de 35 a 74 años, hasta el quinquenio 1995-1999, a partir del cual se inicia un descenso que aparentemente se detiene durante el quinquenio 2010-2014 (ambos sexos: r = 0.9964, r2= 0.9928, b = ­2.4950, p = 0.04; hombres: r = 0.9994, r2= 0.9988, b = ­2.770, p = 0.02; mujeres: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, b = ­2.4950, p = 0.07). Las tasas más altas se presentan en las provincias del centro del país. Predomina durante todo el periodo en el sexo masculino y representa en promedio el 14% de la mortalidad general. Conclusión: La mortalidad por EIC está en fase de disminución, pero el aumento de la obesidad y el sobrepeso en el país amenaza con frenar dicha tendencia, al menos durante el último quinquenio.

Characteristics of mortality due to ischemic heart disease in Costa Rica from 1970 to 2014.

Objective: To update some important aspects of the descriptive epidemiology of ischemic heart (EIC) disease in Costa Rica during the period 1970-2014. Methods: EIC death rates were obtained in two periods: from 1930 to 1969 and then, for a more specific analysis, from 1970 to 2014, using moving and five-year averages, based on data from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística and the Centro Centroamericano de Población, to analyze them according to age, sex, geographical location and percentage contribution to the general mortality. Information was also obtained to determine the burden of the disease, in this case through Years of Adjusted Life for Disability, Years of Life Lost and Years of Life lost due to Disability. Results: There was a rise in rates in the general population, with greater momentum in the population from 35 to 74 years, up to the five-year period 1995-1999, after which a decline began that apparently stopped during the five-year period 2010-2014 (both sexes: r = 0.9964, r2 = 0.9928, ß =-2.4950, p 0.04; men: r = 0.9994, r2 = 0.9988, ß = -2.770, p = 0.02; women: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, ß = -2.4950, p = 0.07). The highest rates occur in the provinces of the center of the country. It predominates during the whole period in the male sex and represents on average 14% of the general mortality. Conclusions: Mortality due to EIC is in a phase of decline but the increase in obesity and overweight in the country threatens to slow down this trend, at least during the last five years.

Objetivo: Actualizar algunos aspectos importantes de la epidemiología descriptiva de la enfermedad isquémica del corazón (EIC) en Costa Rica durante el periodo 1970-2014. Métodos: Se obtuvieron las tasas de mortalidad por EIC en dos periodos. De 1930 al año 1969 y luego, para un análisis más específico, de 1970 al 2014, utilizando promedios móviles y quinquenios, a partir de datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y del Centro Centroamericano de Población, para analizarlos en relación con edad, sexo, ubicación geográfica y aporte porcentual a la mortalidad general. También se obtuvo información para determinar la carga de la enfermedad, en este caso mediante años de vida ajustados por discapacidad, años de vida perdidos y años de vida perdidos por discapacidad. Resultados: Se apreció ascenso de las tasas en la población general y con mayor empuje en la población de 35 a 74 años, hasta el quinquenio 1995-1999, a partir del cual se inicia un descenso que aparentemente se detiene durante el quinquenio 2010-2014 (ambos sexos: r = 0.9964, r2 = 0.9928, ß = ­2.4950, p = 0.04; hombres: r = 0.9994, r2 = 0.9988, ß = ­2.770, p = 0.02; mujeres: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, ß = ­2.4950, p = 0.07). Las tasas más altas se presentan en las provincias del centro del país. Predomina durante todo el periodo en el sexo masculino y representa en promedio el 14% de la mortalidad general. Conclusión: La mortalidad por EIC está en fase de disminución, pero el aumento de la obesidad y el sobrepeso en el país amenaza con frenar dicha tendencia, al menos durante el último quinquenio.

Características de la mortalidad por enfermedad isquémica del corazón en Costa Rica de 1970 al 2014 / Characteristics of mortality due to ischemic heart disease in Costa Rica from 1970 to 2014

Resumen Objetivo: Actualizar algunos aspectos importantes de la epidemiología descriptiva de la enfermedad isquémica del corazón (EIC) en Costa Rica durante el periodo 1970-2014. Métodos: Se obtuvieron las tasas de mortalidad por EIC en dos periodos. De 1930 al año 1969 y luego, para un análisis más específico, de 1970 al 2014, utilizando promedios móviles y quinquenios, a partir de datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y del Centro Centroamericano de Población, para analizarlos en relación con edad, sexo, ubicación geográfica y aporte porcentual a la mortalidad general. También se obtuvo información para determinar la carga de la enfermedad, en este caso mediante años de vida ajustados por discapacidad, años de vida perdidos y años de vida perdidos por discapacidad. Resultados: Se apreció ascenso de las tasas en la población general y con mayor empuje en la población de 35 a 74 años, hasta el quinquenio 1995-1999, a partir del cual se inicia un descenso que aparentemente se detiene durante el quinquenio 2010-2014 (ambos sexos: r = 0.9964, r2 = 0.9928, β = —2.4950, p = 0.04; hombres: r = 0.9994, r2 = 0.9988, β = —2.770, p = 0.02; mujeres: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, β = —2.4950, p = 0.07). Las tasas más altas se presentan en las provincias del centro del país. Predomina durante todo el periodo en el sexo masculino y representa en promedio el 14% de la mortalidad general. Conclusión: La mortalidad por EIC está en fase de disminución, pero el aumento de la obesidad y el sobrepeso en el país amenaza con frenar dicha tendencia, al menos durante el último quinquenio.

Abstract Objective: To update some important aspects of the descriptive epidemiology of ischemic heart (EIC) disease in Costa Rica during the period 1970-2014. Methods: EIC death rates were obtained in two periods: from 1930 to 1969 and then, for a more specific analysis, from 1970 to 2014, using moving and five-year averages, based on data from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística and the Centro Centroamericano de Población, to analyze them according to age, sex, geographical location and percentage contribution to the general mortality. Information was also obtained to determine the burden of the disease, in this case through Years of Adjusted Life for Disability, Years of Life Lost and Years of Life lost due to Disability. Results: There was a rise in rates in the general population, with greater momentum in the population from 35 to 74 years, up to the five-year period 1995-1999, after which a decline began that apparently stopped during the five-year period 2010-2014 (both sexes: r = 0.9964, r2 = 0.9928, β = -2.4950, p 0.04; men: r = 0.9994, r2 = 0.9988, β = -2.770, p = 0.02; women: r = 0.9896, r2 = 0.9793, β = -2.4950, p = 0.07). The highest rates occur in the provinces of the center of the country. It predominates during the whole period in the male sex and represents on average 14% of the general mortality. Conclusions: Mortality due to EIC is in a phase of decline but the increase in obesity and overweight in the country threatens to slow down this trend, at least during the last five years.

Incidencia y mortalidad del cáncer de tiroides en Costa Rica 1990-2014 / Incidence and Mortality of Thyroid Cancer in Costa Rica, 1990-2014

Resumen Justificación y objetivo: determinar la incidencia y mortalidad del cáncer de tiroides en Costa Rica 1990-2014. Metodología: investigación descriptiva observacional de corte transversal. El estudio fue realizado en los costarricenses con diagnóstico (7 265 casos nuevos) y muerte (382 defunciones) de cáncer de tiroides, en el periodo 1990-2014. La información se obtuvo de las bases de datos del Centro Centroamericano de la Población, el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo y el Registro Nacional de Tumores, usando los códigos de Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades 9 y 10. Se hace el cálculo de tasas ajustadas por 100 000 habitantes, porcentajes y años de vida potencialmente perdidos. Resultados: la mortalidad por cáncer de tiroides en Costa Rica mostró una tendencia al ascenso leve durante el periodo de 1990 a 2014. Predomina en el sexo femenino, con una razón de 3:1 y afecta principalmente a la población mayor de 60 años, con tasas mayores en las provincias de Cartago, San José y Heredia. La incidencia, de igual manera, tuvo una tendencia al ascenso, en este caso moderada, al igual que se observó para los años de vida potencialmente perdidos. Conclusión: la mortalidad, la incidencia y los años de vida potencialmente perdidos por cáncer de tiroides en Costa Rica presentan tendencia al ascenso a lo largo del periodo de estudio.

Abstract Background and Aim : To determine the incidence and mortality of thyroid cancer in Costa Rica from 1990 to 2014. Methodology: descriptive cross-sectional observational research. The study was performed in Costa Ricans with diagnosis (7 265 new cases) and death (382 deaths) of thyroid cancer, in the period 1990-2014. The information was obtained from the databases of the Central American Population Center, the National Institute of Statistics and Census and the National Registry of Tumors, using the International Classification of Diseases 9 and 10. Calculation of adjusted rates by 100 000 inhabitants, percentages and years of life potentially lost was obtained. Results: mortality from thyroid cancer in Costa Rica showed a slight upward trend during the period from 1990 to 2014. It was predominant in females, with a ratio of 3: 1 and affected mainly the population over 60 years old, with higher rates in the provinces of Cartago, San José and Heredia. The incidence, in the same way, had a tendency to rise, moderately, just as it was observed for the years of life potentially lost. Conclusion: Mortality, incidence and years of life potentially lost due to thyroid cancer in Costa Rica present a tendency to rise throughout the study period.

Análisis de la mortalidad por enfermedades cerebrovasculares en Costa Rica entre los años 1920-2009 / Analysis of cerebrovascular disease mortality in Costa Rica between the years 1920-2009

Resumen Objetivo Analizar la tendencia de la mortalidad por enfermedades cerebrovasculares en Costa Rica y su impacto sobre la mortalidad general entre los años 1920-2009. Métodos Se obtuvieron las tasas brutas por trienios y quinquenios del lapso estudiado, así como las tasas estandarizadas del grupo etario entre 35-74 años durante el lapso 1970-2009. Igualmente, la proporción de muertes por accidente cerebrovascular (ACV) en relación a la mortalidad general. Resultados La tendencia durante el periodo 1920-1969 fue hacia el ascenso (r = 0.82, r2 = 0.67, betha: 0.30; p = ≤ 0,00) en tanto que para el lapso 1970 ocurrió lo contrario (r = 0.42, r2 = 0.18, betha: −0.064; p = 0.01). Las tasas ajustadas para el grupo 35-74 años entre 1970-2009 descendieron en un 58.03%, siendo la tendencia estadísticamente significante para ambos sexos; varones: r2 = 0.94, betha: −0.73; mujeres: r2 = 0.97, betha: 0.95. El máximo porcentaje de la mortalidad por ACV en relación a la mortalidad general fue de 7,22 alcanzado en el quinquenio 1985-1989, descendiendo a 5.92% en el periodo 2005-2009. Conclusiones En el contexto latinoamericano, las tasas de mortalidad por ACV en Costa Rica son bajas, pero todavía constituyen un grave problema de salud pública por la gran mortalidad, morbilidad y discapacidad que ocasionan, pese a una tendencia hacia el descenso.

Abstract Objective To analyze the trend in mortality from cerebrovascular diseases in Costa Rica and its impact on overall mortality from 1920 to 2009. Methods Crude rates by triennium and quinquennium were obtained. We also obtanied age standardized rates in the age group 35-74 years during the period 1970-2009. Finally we got the death percentage from stroke in relation to overall mortality. Results The trend for the period 1920-1969 was to the upside (r=0.82, r2 =0.67, betha 0.30; P≤0.00) whereas for the period 1970 occurred otherwise (r=0.42, r2 =0.18, betha −0064; P=0.01). Adjusted for the group 35-74 years between 1970-2009 rates decreased by 58.03% was statistically significant trend for both sexes; men r2=0.94, betha: —0.73; women: r2=0.97, betha: 0.95. The maximum percentage of mortality from stroke in relation to the overall mortality was 7.22 in the period 1985-1989 reached down to 5.92% in 2005-2009. Conclusions In the Latin American context, stroke mortality rates in Costa Rica are low but still represent a serious public health problem by the high mortality, morbidity and disability that they cause, despite a downward trend.

[Analysis of cerebrovascular disease mortality in Costa Rica between the years 1920-2009]. / Análisis de la mortalidad por enfermedades cerebrovasculares en Costa Rica entre los años 1920-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the trend in mortality from cerebrovascular diseases in Costa Rica and its impact on overall mortality from 1920 to 2009. METHODS: Crude rates by triennium and quinquennium were obtained. We also obtanied age standardized rates in the age group 35-74 years during the period 1970-2009. Finally we got the death percentage from stroke in relation to overall mortality. RESULTS: The trend for the period 1920-1969 was to the upside (r=0.82, r2=0.67, betha 0.30; P≤0.00) whereas for the period 1970 occurred otherwise (r=0.42, r2=0.18, betha -0064; P=0.01). Adjusted for the group 35-74 years between 1970-2009 rates decreased by 58.03% was statistically significant trend for both sexes; men r2=0.94, betha: -0.73; women: r2=0.97, betha: 0.95. The maximum percentage of mortality from stroke in relation to the overall mortality was 7.22 in the period 1985-1989 reached down to 5.92% in 2005-2009. CONCLUSIONS: In the Latin American context, stroke mortality rates in Costa Rica are low but still represent a serious public health problem by the high mortality, morbidity and disability that they cause, despite a downward trend.

Nicaraguan migration and the prevalence of adolescent childbearing in Costa Rica.

This study describes the dynamics of adolescent childbearing of Nicaraguan-born and Costa Rican-born adolescents in Costa Rica and examines the association between socio-demographic factors and adolescent childbearing in the country. We studied Nicaraguan-born and Costa Rican adolescents using the data of the 2000 Census. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyze the association between country of origin and adolescent childbearing, while controlling for socio-demographic factors (age, education, union, urbanization and poverty). 26% of Nicaraguan-born migrants and 9.5% of Costa Ricans had given birth during adolescence. The migrants' increased odds of pregnancy decreased from 3.34 (CI 3.21, 3.48) to 1.88 (CI 1.79, 1.97) when controlling for socio-demographic factors. Age, low educational attainment, urban residence, poverty and union were all significant predictors of adolescent pregnancy. Nicaraguan-born status is associated with adolescent childbearing in Costa Rica. Further research is needed to understand what factors, other than socio-demographic indicators, contribute to the differing prevalence of adolescent childbearing in Costa Rica.

[Factors associated with incidence of dengue in Costa Rica]. / Factores asociados con la incidencia de dengue en Costa Rica.

OBJECTIVE: Determine the extent to which socioeconomic, demographic, geographic, and climate variables affected the incidence of dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever (D/DH) in Costa Rica during the period 1999-2007. METHODS: A correlational epidemiologic study was conducted that analyzed the cumulative incidence of D/DH from 1999 to 2007 and its association with different variables in the country's 81 cantons. Information was obtained from secondary sources, and the independent variables used for the analysis were selected on the basis of their representativeness in terms of sociodemographic, environmental, and health coverage factors that affect the epidemiology of D/DH. These variables were divided into four groups of indicators: demographic, socioeconomic, housing, and climate and geographical. The data were analyzed by means of simple and multiple Poisson regressions. RESULTS: The Costa Rican cantons with a higher incidence of D/DH were located primarily near the coast, coinciding with some of the variables studied. Temperature, altitude, and the human poverty index were the most relevant variables in explaining the incidence of D/DH, while temperature was the most significant variable in the multiple analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The analyses made it possible to correlate a higher incidence of D/DH with lower-altitude cantons, higher temperature, and a high human poverty index ranking. This information is relevant as a first step toward prioritizing and optimizing actions for the prevention and control of this disease.

Factores asociados con la incidencia de dengue en Costa Rica / Factors associated with incidence of dengue in Costa Rica

OBJETIVO: Determinar el grado de influencia de diferentes variables socioeconómicas, demográficas, geográficas y climáticas con respecto a la incidencia de dengue y dengue hemorrágico (D/DH) en Costa Rica durante el período 1999-2007. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio epidemiológico de tipo correlacional, analizando la incidencia acumulada de D/DH desde 1999 a 2007 y su asociación con diferentes variables en los 81 cantones del país. La información se obtuvo de fuentes secundarias y las variables independientes usadas para el análisis se seleccionaron considerando su representatividad en cuanto a aspectos sociodemográficos, ambientales y de cobertura sanitaria que afectan a la epidemiología de D/DH. Estas variables se organizaron en cuatro grupos de indicadores: demográficos, socioeconómicos, de vivienda y climáticos y geográficos. Los datos se analizaron por medio de regresiones de Poisson simples y múltiples. RESULTADOS: Los cantones de Costa Rica con mayor incidencia de D/DH se localizaron principalmente cerca de las costas, coincidiendo con algunas de las variables estudiadas. La temperatura, la altitud y el índice de pobreza humana (IPH) fueron las variables más relevantes para explicar la incidencia de D/DH, en tanto que la temperatura fue la más significativa en los análisis múltiples. CONCLUSIONES: Los análisis permitieron relacionar una mayor incidencia de D/DH con cantones de menor altitud, mayor temperatura y un IPH elevado. Esta información es relevante como un primer paso para estratificar prioridades y optimizar acciones de prevención y control de esta enfermedad.

OBJECTIVE: Determine the extent to which socioeconomic, demographic, geographic, and climate variables affected the incidence of dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever (D/DH) in Costa Rica during the period 1999-2007. METHODS: A correlational epidemiologic study was conducted that analyzed the cumulative incidence of D/DH from 1999 to 2007 and its association with different variables in the country's 81 cantons. Information was obtained from secondary sources, and the independent variables used for the analysis were selected on the basis of their representativeness in terms of sociodemographic, environmental, and health coverage factors that affect the epidemiology of D/DH. These variables were divided into four groups of indicators: demographic, socioeconomic, housing, and climate and geographical. The data were analyzed by means of simple and multiple Poisson regressions. RESULTS: The Costa Rican cantons with a higher incidence of D/DH were located primarily near the coast, coinciding with some of the variables studied. Temperature, altitude, and the human poverty index were the most relevant variables in explaining the incidence of D/DH, while temperature was the most significant variable in the multiple analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The analyses made it possible to correlate a higher incidence of D/DH with lower-altitude cantons, higher temperature, and a high human poverty index ranking. This information is relevant as a first step toward prioritizing and optimizing actions for the prevention and control of this disease.

Differential mortality patterns between Nicaraguan immigrants and native-born residents of Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: This study describes the all-cause and cause-specific mortality of Nicaraguan-born and native-born inhabitants of Costa Rica and examines the influence of socioeconomic and demographic factors on differential mortality risks. METHODS: We analyzed Costa Rican vital records for the years 1996-2005 with negative binomial regression models to determine the relative mortality risks of Nicaraguan immigrants versus Costa Rican natives with adjustments for age, urbanization, unemployment, poverty, education, and residential segregation. RESULTS: Nicaraguan-born men and women had reduced mortality risks of 32% and 34% relative to their Costa Rican-born counterparts. Excess homicide mortality was found among Nicaraguan-born men [rate ratio (RR) = 1.35, 95% CI: 1.19-1.53] and women (RR = 1.41, 95% CI: 1.02-1.95). DISCUSSION: The Nicaraguan-born population had a reduced all-cause mortality risk versus Costa Rican-born people over the years 1996-2005, due to markedly lower disease mortality. Homicide is a major source of excess mortality among Nicaraguan-born immigrants versus Costa Rican natives.

[Forest and population at Península de Osa, Costa Rica]. / Bosque y población en la Península de Osa, Costa Rica.

The research is focused on the relationship between population growth and conservation of the forest on the Osa Peninsula. Data of the geo-referenced censuses and information on land-use, derived from satellite images and aerial photography, were integrated into a GIS. We undertook an historical inventory of the changes in the population and the forest coverage, and the key events in the land tenure and economy of the region. Deforestation, reforestation, and fragmentation of the forest during the period 1980-1995 were analyzed. Relationships with the population potential, derived from the 1984 Costa Rican censuses, were identified, and the effects of third variables were controlled such as distances to the roads, rain, distances to the forest frontier, level of protection, etc. Both strong and significant associations between 1984 population potential and the three processes were detected. The probability of deforestation is null in unpopulated areas, 35% in areas with 25-30 potential farmers and to 65% in areas with 50 farmers and over. The probability of reforestation decreases from 100% to 28% and to 18% in these three categories. This kind of relationship persists in the multivariable analysis. An increase of 0.63% in the number of household, results in an increment of 1% in the risk of deforestation (elasticity). The elasticity in the chances of reforestation is -0.37 and 1% in fragmentation of the forest. An evaluation in the risk of deforestation for the period 1995-2005 was done. The most recent population data were used and it identifies several geographic areas with high deforestation risk.

Bosque y población en la Península de Osa, Costa Rica / Forest and population at Península de Osa, Costa Rica

The research is focused on the relationship between population growth and conservation of the forest on the Osa Peninsula. Data of the geo-referenced censuses and information on land-use, derived from satellite images and aerial photography, were integrated into a GIS. We undertook an historical inventory of the changes in the population and the forest coverage, and the key events in the land tenure and economy of the region. Deforestation, reforestation, and fragmentation of the forest during the period 1980-1995 were analyzed. Relationships with the population potential, derived from the 1984 Costa Rican censuses, were identified, and the effects of third variables were controlled such as distances to the roads, rain, distances to the forest frontier, level of protection, etc. Both strong and significant associations between 1984 population potential and the three processes were detected. The probability of deforestation is null in unpopulated areas, 35 in areas with 25-30 potential farmers and to 65 in areas with 50 farmers and over. The probability of reforestation decreases from 100 to 28 and to 18 in these three categories. This kind of relationship persists in the multivariable analysis. An increase of 0.63 in the number of household, results in an increment of 1 in the risk of deforestation (elasticity). The elasticity in the chances of reforestation is -0.37 and 1 in fragmentation of the forest. An evaluation in the risk of deforestation for the period 1995-2005 was done. The most recent population data were used and it identifies several geographic areas with high deforestation risk.

Abundancia y morfometría de Anadara tuberculosa y A. similis (Mollusca: Bivalvia) en el Manglar de Purruja, Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica / Abundance and morphometry of Anadara tuberculosa and A. similis (Mollusca: Bivalvia) in the Manglar de Purruja, Dulce Gulf, Costa Rica

The density, population, length, yield and sex proportion of the mollusks Anadara tuberculosa and A. similis were studied in Bahía de Golfito, Golfo Dulce, Pacific coast of Costa Rica from February 1998 to February 1999. A. tuberculosa was more abundant (0.9 units m(-2)), than A. similis (0.2 units m(-2)); the highest abundance was found at the canal mouths. The average lengths were 43.3 mm for A. tuberculosa and 42.8 mm for A. similis (both under the Costa Rican legal minimal length for exploitation: 47 mm). Maximum lengths were measured in the middle and upstream Canal Mayor, respectively: 43.0 mm and 43.4 mm. The correlation between length and fresh weight was 0.81 (Pearson). The average total weights were 26.2 g for A. tuberculosa and 19.1 g for A. similis. The condition index (a meat yield measurement) was higher in A. similis (21.2%) than in A. tuberculosa (17.2%). The maximum yield for both species lies in the 31-35 mm range. The male ratio was 43.7%. A species recovery plan is urgent because these results suggest both a decrease in density and illegal exploitation.