Managing Accident Prevention in Ski Resorts: Participants' Actual Velocities in Slow Zones.

Velocity is one of the main factors affecting the kinematic of snow sports' accidents and the severity of resulting injuries. The aims of the present study were to measure the actual maximum velocities attained by a sample of snow sports participants in slow zones, to compare them to the recommended velocity limits and to assess whether their velocities were in any way related to their personal characteristics and to environmental conditions. Data were drawn from a sample of 1023 recreational skiers and snowboarders during the 2021-2022 winter season at four ski resorts located in the Spanish Pyrenees. Maximum velocity measurements were taken by the authors with a radar speed gun whose precision had been previously validated. Bivariate analysis tests were used to compare the influence that personal characteristics and environmental conditions had on the participants' maximum velocities. Furthermore, a multivariate analysis was performed. The binary logistic regression was used to distinguish the categories of personal and environmental factors that have the highest probabilities of impact on different segments of velocity. As generally accepted, probability values were two-tailed, and values of 0.05 or less were regarded as statistically significant. Participants' mean measured maximum velocity (±SD) was 51.61 (±16.14) km/h. A vast majority of the participants in this study traveled in slow zones at actual maximum velocities well over the recommended limits. Multivariate analysis showed that modality and both environmental conditions (visibility and snow quality) were highly significant and can be used to explain the chances of an increase in velocity in slow zones. Further research is needed to investigate causal relationships between skiers and snowboarders' accidents, injuries and disrespect for velocity limits.

Managing risk in ski resorts: Environmental factors affecting actual and estimated speed on signposted groomed slopes in a cohort of adult recreational alpine skiers.

BACKGROUND: Certain weather conditions are clearly harmful, increasing the risk of injury of winter sports participants substantially. The objective of this study was to investigate actual speeds of skiers on signposted groomed slopes and to measure their skill to accurately estimate them with regard to environmental conditions such as visibility, sky cover, snow quality, wind and temperature. METHODS: The data were obtained from a sample of 421 adult recreational skiers taking ski courses. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to explore the relationship between actual and estimated speed for all participants. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to measure the effect of environmental conditions on both the skiers' actual speeds and their errors of estimation. Values of 0.05 or less were considered to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: The Pearson correlation coefficient between estimated and actual speed was 0.90 (P < 0.001). Skiers underestimated their actual speed on average by 13.06 km/h or 24.1%. Visibility, quality of snow and wind speed were shown to significantly affect both actual maximum speed and estimated speed. Good visibility, grippy snow and calm wind were associated with both the highest actual maximum speed and the lowest ability to estimate it. CONCLUSION: Certain environmental conditions are associated with the actual speed at which skiers travel and with their ability to estimate it. Visibility, quality of snow and wind speed seem to influence both actual speed and the ability to estimate it while sky cover and temperature do not. A reinforced understanding of skiing speed on signposted groomed slopes is useful to gain insight into crashes and the mechanisms of resulting injuries, to evaluate means of protection and to devise successful prevention policies in ski resorts.

Injury prevention: Individual factors affecting adult recreational snowboarders' actual and estimated speeds on regular slopes.

Speed is a main factor affecting the kinematic of snow-sports accidents and the degree of severity of the resulting injuries. The aim of this study was to measure on-slope actual maximum speeds of snowboarders and to assess their ability to accurately them with regard to individual factors such as gender, skill level, age and risk-taking behaviour and actual maximum speed. The data were obtained from a sample of 312 (67% male, 33% female) adult recreational snowboarders taking lessons in one of the major resorts in the Spanish Pyrenees. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between maximal measured actual speed and estimated speed for all participants. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the impact of individual factors on both the snowboarders' actual maximum speed and their error of estimation. The Pearson correlation coefficient between estimated and actual maximum speed was 0.52 (P < 0.001) for all participants. They underestimated their actual maximum speed on average by 10.05 km/h or 28.62%. All assessed factors were shown to significantly affect the snowboarders' actual maximum speed. However, gender, skill level, age and actual maximum speed were shown to significantly affect the snowboarders' error of estimation, while risk-taking behavior did not. Gender, skill level, age and risk-taking behaviour are associated with the actual maximum speed at which snowboarders ride, while the same individual factors, except for risk-taking behaviour, and their snowboarding speed seem to affect the ability to estimate actual maximum speeds in adult recreational snowboarders. The ability to estimate actual speed accurately is an important factor to avoid accidents on ski slopes and, therefore, having snowboarders informed about the benefits of speed self-awareness is a key matter for prevention purposes.

Injury Prevention: Freestylers' Awareness of FIS Code of Conduct for Snow Parks.

The objectives of the present study were to assess general perceptions of safety in snow parks (SPs), general knowledge of rules existence, and both active and passive awareness of the International Ski Federation (FIS) rules contained in its Code of Conduct for SPs in order to define target groups for injury prevention-specific education interventions. Data were drawn from 436 freestylers randomly interviewed. The study was conducted during the 2018-2019 winter season in the SP of a major winter resort located in the Spanish Pyrenees. A questionnaire assessing personal data (gender, age, gear used, self-reported skill, and frequency of use), general perceptions on safety, general request for rules, and awareness of existing rules in SPs was developed. Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests were used to compare characteristics between groups. It was revealed, for accident prevention purposes, a concerning general lack of knowledge of existing rules in SPs (63% of participants ignored them). Risk-inducing situations that could result in severe injuries, such as familiarity with the right progression in choosing features and/or stunts or with safety equipment, were largely assessed incorrectly (94% and 70% of participants, respectively). Appropriate intuitive behavior increases with experience: youths and beginners are less able to implement FIS rules than more experienced freestylers.

Snowboarders' Knowledge of the FIS Rules for Conduct on Ski Slopes.

The objective of the present study is to assess snowboarders' general perceptions of safety and knowledge of existing rules and both active and passive knowledge of the International Ski Federation (FIS) regulations in order to contribute to defining target groups for specific educational interventions in the field of injury prevention. Data were drawn from random interviews conducted with 918 snowboarders during the 2017-2018 winter season at five ski resorts located in the Spanish Pyrenees. To collect the data, a questionnaire assessing personal characteristics (gender, age, origin, and self-reported skill), general perception of safety, general request for rules, and knowledge of existing rules was used. Pearson's Chi-squared tests were performed to compare characteristics between groups. The study revealed, for accident prevention purposes, a concerning lack of general knowledge of existing rules. Risk-inducing situations that could result in severe injuries were largely assessed incorrectly. The appropriate intuitive behavior increases with age and experience: youths and beginners are less able to implement the FIS rules than older and more experienced snowboarders. Stakeholders, such as parents, ski resorts, clubs or schools, should direct educational efforts at high-risk groups. Further research is needed to determine the causal relation between snowboard-related injuries and disregard of FIS rules.

Epidemiology of Feature-Specific Injuries Sustained by Skiers in a Snow Park.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present case series study was to analyze injury types and injured anatomic locations resulting from skiing in snow park (SP) features and to determine potential risk factors for ski injuries in an SP. METHODS: The study was conducted during the 2013-2014 winter season in the SP of a major winter resort located in the Spanish Pyrenees. Cases involved skiers who experienced feature-related injuries in the SP. A total of 113 cases met the inclusion criteria. Logistic regression was used to calculate the odds of injury types and injury to anatomic locations on aerial versus nonaerial features. RESULTS: The overall injury rate was 0.9 per 1000 skier runs. The proportion of injuries was higher for aerials (1.18% of uses) than for nonaerials (0.66% of uses). Results revealed that the upper extremities were the most commonly injured body region, and sprains/strains/dislocations and fractures were the most common injury type. CONCLUSIONS: The most commonly injured anatomic location on nonaerial features was the face, while on aerial features it was the head. A higher proportion of fractures was observed on aerial features, while a higher proportion of sprains/strains/dislocations was observed on nonaerial features. Prevention strategies to reduce injury risk include SP redesign, safety and communication policies, instruction on technical skills, and promotion of the use of protective equipment.

Feature-specific ski injuries in snow parks.

Previous research suggests that snow park (SP) injuries are proportionally more frequent and more likely to be more severe than those sustained on traditional slopes. The aim of this study was to calculate skiers' overall and feature-specific injury rates and determine potential risk factors for severe injury in an SP. This is a retrospective study conducted during the 2013/2014 winter season in the SP of a major winter resort located in the Spanish Pyrenees. Cases were skiers who suffered feature-related injuries in the SP. Denominator data consisted of the estimated total number of skier runs and the estimated total number of times each feature was used by a skier. Injury rates were calculated and logistic regression used to determine the feature-specific odds of injury. A total of 113 cases met the inclusion criteria. The overall injury rate was of 0.9 per 1000 skier runs. Rates of injury were highest for Big jumps (2.9/1000 uses) and lowest for Rainbow boxes (0.1/1000 uses). Compared with Boxes, there were increased odds of severe injury versus minor injury for C-rails (OR 9.1; 95% CI 0.6-13.18), Half-pipe (OR 4.5; 95% CI 0.3-6.27) and Big jumps (OR 3.0; 95% CI 0.3-3.53). Higher feature-specific ski injury rates and increased odds of injury were associated with features that require a very clean technique or promote aerial maneuvers and result in a larger drop to the ground.

Causes of accidents in terrain parks: an exploratory factor analysis of recreational freestylers' views.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines ski and snowboard terrain park users' views on aspects associated with accidents by identifying and assessing variables that may influence the occurrence of accidents and the resulting injuries. METHODS: The research was conducted in a major resort in the Spanish Pyrenees, using information gathered from freestyle skiers and snowboarders aged 6 or older. To identify interrelationships among variables and to group the variables belonging to unified concepts, an exploratory factor analysis was performed using varimax rotation. RESULTS: The results revealed 5 factors that grouped the measured variables that may influence the occurrence of accidents while freestyling in terrain parks. The park features, conditions of the activity, and the user's personal conditions were found to have the most substantial influence on the freestylers' perceptions. CONCLUSIONS: Variables identified as components of the main factors of accident risk in terrain parks should be incorporated into resort management communication and policies.

Risks of visiting snow destinations: an analysis of skiers' views.

Very little research exists regarding the risks of visiting snow destinations. This study attempts to bridge this gap through insights into skiers' perceptions of risk, of great relevance to snow industry stakeholders, by identifying factors that influence skiers. The research was conducted in the Spanish Pyrenees, using information gathered from adult members of two ski clubs that regularly visit this snow destination. Skiing risks, accommodation risks and public safety risks were found to have the most important bearing on visitors' risk perceptions. However, actual figures demonstrate that respondents had some difficulties in assessing the typicality of the risk items and tended to misjudge the true level of the risks.