Photobiomodulation and salivary glands: a systematic review.

To date, there is no compilation of evidence-based information associating photobiomodulation effect and salivary glands. This systematic review aims to assess photobiomodulation effect of low intensity laser on salivary glands in the presence of systemic diseases. MEDLINE databases were searched in duplicate through December 2018. In vivo studies and clinical trials were included if photobiomodulation was performed in salivary glands of animal (rat or mice) or human in the presence of systemic disease. The methodological quality was assessed in duplicate using the modified Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS). Search strategy identified 483 potentially eligible articles, and 449 were included. The Boolean search naturally leads to a high amount of works the majority of which were excluded because the analysis of the title and abstract demonstrated it was not focusing on PBM. Only 34 studies were selected for the full-text analysis, of which 5 were excluded due to non-use of photobiomodulation, 4 due to lack of control group, 2 because they were studies of cell cultures and 1 because they did not have the total of animals used. Thus, 21 papers were included for the critical evaluation of the impact of photobiomodulation on the major salivary glands; the studies used rats (n = 10) and humans (n = 11). Although studies reported an increase in the salivary rate, decrease in pain, and increase in quality of life after the PBM, the lack of standards for the application of light and reporting of the parameters, make it hard to reproduce the results. This topic is still in need for further research.

Ovulation synchronization with estradiol benzoate or GnRH in a timed artificial insemination protocol in buffalo cows and heifers during the nonbreeding season.

The aim of this study was to compare estradiol benzoate (EB) and GnRH for the induction of ovulation in a TAI protocol in buffalo during the nonbreeding season. In experiment 1, 141 buffaloes (56 cows and 85 heifers) received an intravaginal P4 device (1.0 g) plus EB (2.0-mg, intramuscular [im]) at random stage of the estrous cycle (Day 0). On Day 9, the P4 device was removed, and buffaloes were given PGF2α (0.53-mg im sodium cloprostenol) plus eCG (400-IU im). Buffaloes were then randomly allocated to one of three groups and treated as follows: EB24 (n = 47), EB (1.0 mg im) 24 hours after P4 device removal; EB36 (n = 50), EB 36 hours after P4 device removal; GnRH48 (n = 44), GnRH (10 µg im buserelin acetate) 48 hours after P4 device removal. Ultrasound examinations were performed on Day 0 to ascertain ovarian follicular status, Day 9 to measure follicular diameter, and from Day 11 to Day 14 (every 12 hours for 60 hours) to establish the time of ovulation. There were no significant differences between EB24, EB36, and GnRH48 for diameter of the ovulatory follicle (13.1 ± 0.3, 13.7 ± 0.3, and 13.7 ± 0.3 mm; P = 0.26) and ovulation rate (78.7%, 82.0%, and 84.1%; P = 0.93). When compared with heifers, cows had a greater diameter of the dominant follicle on Day 9 (10.3 ± 0.3 and 8.6 ± 0.2 mm; P = 0.0001), diameter of the ovulatory follicle (14.1 ± 0.3 and 13.1 ± 0.2 mm; P = 0.01), ovulation rate (91.1% and 75.3%; P = 0.02), and interval from P4 device removal to ovulation (76.3 ± 1.3 and 72.5 ± 1.4 hours; P = 0.05). In experiment 2, 511 buffaloes (354 cows and 157 heifers) were assigned to the same treatments described in experiment 1 (EB24, n = 168; EB36, n = 172; and GnRH48, n = 171), and all animals were submitted to timed artificial insemination (TAI) 64 hours after P4 device removal. Pregnancy diagnosis was undertaken 30 days after TAI. There were no significant differences between EB24, EB36, and GnRH48 for pregnancy rate (45.2%, 43.0%, and 49.7%; P = 0.46), and the pregnancy rate did not differ (P = 0.31) for cows (47.5%) and heifers (42.7%). The findings from the two experiments indicated that EB (24 or 36 hours) and GnRH (48 hours) induce comparable follicular responses, ovulation, and pregnancy rates in buffalo cows and heifers. Although there were some differences in the follicular responses between cows and heifers, the pregnancy rate to TAI was nonetheless similar.

Detection of estrous behavior in buffalo heifers by radiotelemetry following PGF2α administration during the early or late luteal phase.

This study examined the usefulness of radiotelemetry for estrous detection in buffalo heifers and the impact of prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) administration during the early or late luteal phase on estrous behavior and ovulatory follicle variables. Induction of estrus with PGF2α at a random stage of the estrous cycle was followed by the arbitrary division of heifers into groups receiving a second dose of PGF2α during either the early (n=33) or late (n=17) luteal phase (6-9 or 11-14 days after estrus, respectively) for the induction of synchronized estrus. The electronic detection of synchronized estrus by radiotelemetry was confirmed using ultrasonography every 6h until ovulation. Radiotelemetry was 90% efficient and 100% accurate for estrous detection. Intervals between the PGF2α dose and the beginning of synchronized estrus (40.7 ± 10.9 vs. 56.7 ± 12.8h) or ovulation (70.0 ± 11.3 vs. 85.6 ± 12.5h) were shorter (P<0.05) for heifers receiving PGF2α during the early luteal phase. PGF2α administration during the early or late luteal phase produced similar (P>0.05) results for the duration of estrus, the intervals from the beginning or end of estrus to ovulation, the number and duration of mounts per estrus, the duration of mounts, the diameter of the ovulatory follicle and the luteal profile on day 5 after estrus. In conclusion, radiotelemetry was a suitable tool for the efficient and accurate detection of estrus in buffalo heifers. Treatment with PGF2α during the early luteal phase had a shorter interval to synchronized estrus and ovulation; however, estrous behavior, ovulatory follicle dynamics and subsequent luteal activity were similar following PGF2α administration during the early or late luteal phase.

Different circulating progesterone concentrations during synchronization of ovulation protocol did not affect ovarian follicular and pregnancy responses in seasonal anestrous buffalo cows.

Three experiments were designed to evaluate the effect of different circulating progesterone (P4) concentrations during synchronization of ovulation protocol for timed artificial insemination of seasonal anestrous buffalo cows. In the first trial, ovariectomized cows were randomly allocated into one of three groups: using new P4 devices (G-New; n = 8), using devices previously used for 9 days (G-Used1x; n = 8), and using devices previously used for 18 days (G-Used2x; n = 8). The P4 device was maintained for 9 days, and the circulating P4 concentration was measured daily. The circulating P4 concentrations during the P4 device treatment were the lowest for G-Used2x (1.10 ± 0.04 ng/mL), intermediate for G-Used1x (1.52 ± 0.05 ng/mL), and the highest for G-New (2.47 ± 0.07 ng/mL; P = 0.001). In the second trial, 31 anestrous cows had their ovarian follicular dynamics evaluated after receiving the treatments described previously (G-New [n = 10], G-Used1x [n = 11], and G-Used2x [n = 10]). At insertion of the P4 device, cows were administered 2.0 mg of estradiol benzoate. Nine days later, the P4 device was removed and cows were administered 0.53 mg of cloprostenol sodium plus 400 IU of eCG. Forty-eight hours after P4 device removal, 10 µg of buserelin acetate was administered. There were no differences among the groups (G-New vs. G-Used1x vs. G-Used2x) in diameter of the largest follicle at P4 device removal (9.0 ± 0.8 vs. 10.1 ± 0.9 vs. 8.6 ± 0.8 mm; P = 0.35), in interval from P4 device removal to ovulation (77.1 ± 4.5 vs. 76.5 ± 4.7 vs. 74.0 ± 4.4 hours; P = 0.31), or in ovulation rate (80.0% vs. 81.8% vs. 60.0%; P = 0.51). In experiment 3, 350 anestrous cows were randomly assigned into one of the three treatments described previously (G-New, n = 111; G-Used1x, n = 121; G-Used2x, n = 118) and received a timed artificial insemination for 16 hours after buserelin treatment. The 30-day pregnancy rates did not differ among groups (55.9% vs. 55.4% vs. 48.3%; P = 0.39). Thus, the low circulating P4 concentrations released from a used P4 device efficiently control the ovarian follicular growth and had no detrimental effect on the pregnancy rates of the seasonal anestrous buffalo cows.

Equine chorionic gonadotropin improves the efficacy of a timed artificial insemination protocol in buffalo during the nonbreeding season.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) treatment on ovarian follicular response, luteal function, and pregnancy in buffaloes subjected to a timed artificial insemination (TAI) protocol during the nonbreeding season. In experiment 1, 59 buffalo cows were randomly assigned to two groups (with and without eCG). On the first day of the synchronization protocol (Day 0), cows received an intravaginal progesterone (P4) device plus 2.0 mg estradiol benzoate im. On Day 9, the P4 device was removed, all cows were given 0.150 mg PGF(2α) im, and half were given 400 IU eCG im. On Day 11, all cows were given 10 µg of buserelin acetate im (GnRH). Transrectal ultrasonography of the ovaries was performed on Days 0 and 9 to determine the presence and diameter of the largest follicle; between Days 11 and 14 (12 hours apart), to evaluate the dominant follicle diameter and the interval from device removal to ovulation; and on Days 16, 20, and 24 to measure CL diameter. Blood samples were collected on Days 16, 20, and 24 to measure serum P4. In experiment 2, 256 buffaloes were assigned to the same treatments described in experiment 1, and TAI was performed 16 hours after GnRH treatment. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed by ultrasonography 30 days after TAI. Treatment with eCG increased the maximum diameter of dominant follicles (P = 0.09), ovulation rate (P = 0.05), CL diameter (P = 0.03), and P4 concentrations (P = 0.01) 4 days after TAI, and pregnancy per AI (52.7%, 68/129 vs. 39.4%, 50/127; P = 0.03). Therefore, eCG improved ovarian follicular response, luteal function during the subsequent diestrus, and fertility for buffalo subjected to a TAI synchronization protocol during the nonbreeding season.

Timing of insemination using sex-sorted sperm in embryo production with Bos indicus and Bos taurus superovulated donors.

Two experiments were designed to evaluate the effect of different insemination times (12 and 24h or 18 and 30h) and different types of semen (sex-sorted or non-sorted sperm) on embryo production in Nelore (Bos indicus) and Holstein (Bos taurus) superstimulated donors. In the first experiment, hormonal superstimulation of ovarian follicular development in Nelore donors (n=71) was performed in randomly allocated animals to one of the three treatment groups, and they were inseminated at 12 and 24h after an ovulatory stimulus with pLH treatment was applied, either with sex-sorted (4.2×10(6) sperm/insemination; S12/24; n=17) or non-sorted sperm (20×10(6) sperm/insemination; NS12/24; n=18), or they were inseminated at 18 and 30h using sex-sorted sperm (4.2×10(6) sperm/insemination; S18/30; n=19). A greater number of transferable embryos were found when sex-sorted sperm was used to inseminate the animals at 18 and 30h (4.5±3.0) compared to insemination at 12 and 24h (2.4±1.8; P<0.001). However, a greater embryo production (6.8±2.6) was obtained with non-sorted sperm. In the second experiment, the same insemination times and semen types were used in lactating high-production Holstein cows (n=12). A crossover design was employed in this trial. A lesser embryo production (P=0.007) was found in Holstein donors that were inseminated using sex-sorted sperm at 12 and 24h (4.6±3.0) compared to non-sorted sperm (8.7±2.8). However, intermediate results were obtained when the inseminations with sex-sorted sperm were performed at 18 and 30h (6.4±3.1). These results supported the current hypothesis that it is possible to improve embryo production using sex-sorted sperm in B. indicus and B. taurus superstimulated donors when the inseminations are performed near the same time as time-synchronized ovulations. However, the embryo production for timed artificial insemination (TAI) with sex-sorted sperm was still less than the production with non-sorted sperm.

Ultrasonographic and endocrine aspects of follicle deviation, and acquisition of ovulatory capacity in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) heifers.

The objectives of this study were to determine the interval from ovulation to deviation and the diameter of the dominant (DF) and largest subordinate (SF) follicles at deviation in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) heifers. Two methods of evaluation (observed vs. calculated) were used. FSH and LH profiles encompassing follicle deviation (Experiment 1), and the follicular diameter when the DF acquired ovulatory capacity (Experiment 2) were also determined. The time of deviation and the diameter of the DF and the largest SF at deviation did not differ between observed and calculated methods. Overall, follicle deviation occurred 2.6 ± 0.2d (mean ± SEM) after ovulation, and the diameters of the DF and SF at deviation were 7.2 ± 0.2 and 6.4 ± 0.2mm, respectively. No changes in plasma levels of FSH or LH were observed (P=0.32 and P=0.96, respectively). Experiment 2 was conducted in two phases according to the diameter of the DF during the first wave of follicular development at the time of LH challenge (25mg of pLH). In the first phase, follicles ranging from 5.0 to 6.0mm (n=7), 6.1 to 7.0mm (n=11), or 7.1 to 8.0mm (n=9) were used, and in the second phase, follicles ranging from 7.0 to 8.4mm (n=10), 8.5 to 10.0mm (n=10), or 10.1 to 12.0mm (n=9) of diameter were used. After the pLH treatment, the DF was monitored by ultrasonography every 12h for 48h. No ovulations occurred in heifers in the first phase. However, in the second phase, an effect of follicular diameter was observed on ovulation rate [7.0-8.4mm (0.0%, 0/10), 8.5-10.0mm (50.0%, 5/10), and 10.0-12.0mm (55.6%, 5/9)]. In summary, follicle deviation occurred 2.6d after ovulation in buffalo (B. bubalis) heifers, when the diameters of the DF and SF were 7.2 and 6.4mm, respectively. No significant changes in plasma concentrations of FSH or LH were detected. Finally, the acquisition of ovulatory capacity occurred when the DF reached 8.5mm in diameter.

Growth, metabolic status and ovarian function in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) heifers fed a low energy or high energy diet.

The aim was to establish the capacity of buffalo heifers to adapt their metabolic requirements to a low energy diet. Murrah buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) heifers undergoing regular estrous cycles were randomly assigned by age, live weight (LW) and body condition score (BCS) to a high energy group (HE, 5.8 milk forage units (MFU)/day, n=6) or low energy group (LE, 3.6 MFU/day, n=6). Circulating concentrations of metabolic substrates, metabolic hormones and reproductive hormones were determined weekly for 19 weeks. Ovarian follicular characteristics and oocyte parameters were also ascertained weekly. Heifers fed the LE diet had a better dry matter conversion than heifers fed the HE diet and the calculated daily energy provision was negative for heifers fed the LE diet (-0.248 MFU) and positive for heifers fed the HE diet (5.4 MFU). Heifers fed the HE diet had an increase in 50 kg LW over the duration of the study whereas LW remained constant for heifers fed the LE diet. The BCS of heifers fed the HE diet (4.2) was greater (P<0.05) than the BCS for heifers fed the LE diet (3.4). Heifers fed the HE diet had greater (P<0.05) circulating concentrations of metabolic substrates (glucose, total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol) and metabolic hormones (insulin, glucagon, leptin and T3) compared with heifers fed the LE diet. There were no significant differences in circulating reproductive hormones between the two groups of heifers. Ovarian follicular characteristics were similar for the two groups of heifers while heifers fed the LE diet tended to have oocytes of reduced quality compared with heifers fed the HE diet. The most notable finding was that heifers fed the LE diet had a negative calculated daily energy provision but were able to maintain LW and reproductive activity. It was concluded that buffalo heifers may potentially have the capacity to undergo metabolic adjustment and reduce their energy requirements when dietary energy is limiting. This adaptive capacity would explain why buffaloes remain productive in environments that are limiting to other ruminants.

Effect of recombinant bovine somatotropin (bST) on follicular population and on in vitro buffalo embryo production.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of bovine somatotropin (bST) on ovarian follicular population in buffalo heifers and its influence on oocyte quality, recovery rates and in vitro embryo production. We tested the hypothesis that bST treatment in buffalo females submitted to an ovum pick-up (OPU) program would improve the number of follicles recruited, oocyte quality and in vitro embryo production. A total of 10 heifers were assigned into two treatment groups: group bST (n=5; receiving 500 mg of bST in regular intervals) and control group (n=5; without additional treatment). Both groups were subjected to OPU sessions twice a week (every 3 or 4 days), for a total of 10 sessions per female, although due to procedural problems, only the first five OPU sessions produced embryos. The number of follicles and the diameters were recorded at all OPU sessions. The harvested oocytes were counted and classified according to their quality as either A, B, C, D or E, with A and B considered good quality. Cleavage and blastocyst production rates were evaluated 2 and 7 days after in vitro fertilization, respectively. The bST treatment increased the total number of antral follicles (>3mm in diameter; 12.2 compared with 8.7; p<0.05) and of small antral follicles (<5mm; 9.1 compared with 6.5; p<0.05) per OPU session. The bST also tended to increase the number of oocytes recovered per session (5.2 compared with 4.1; p=0.07), and enhanced the percentage of good quality oocytes (48.8% compared with 40.6%; p=0.07). bST showed no effect on cleavage and blastocyst production rates (p>0.05). The significant effects of performing repeated OPU sessions were decreasing the follicular population (p<0.001) as well as the number of follicles aspirated (p<0.001), and oocytes recovered (p<0.02). In conclusion, bST treatment improves the follicular population, demonstrating its possible application in buffalo donors submitted to OPU programs.

Follicle deviation and ovulatory capacity in Bos indicus heifers.

The objectives of Experiment 1 were to determine the interval from ovulation to deviation, and diameter of the dominant follicle (DF) and largest subordinate follicle (SF) at deviation in Nelore (Bos indicus) heifers by two methods (observed and calculated). Heifers (n = 12) were examined ultrasonographically every 12 h from ovulation (Day 0) to Day 5. The time of deviation and diameter of the DF and largest SF at deviation did not differ (P>0.05) between observed and calculated methods. Overall, deviation occurred 2.5+/-0.2 d (mean +/- S.E.M.) after ovulation, and diameters for DF and largest SF at deviation were 6.2+/-0.2 and 5.9 +/- 0.2 mm, respectively. Experiment 2 was designed to determine the size at which the DF acquires ovulatory capacity in B. indicus heifers. Twenty-nine heifers were monitored every 24 h by ultrasonography, from ovulation until the DF reached diameters of 7.0-8.4 mm (n=9), 8.5-10.0 mm (n=10), or >10.0 mm (n=10). At that time, heifers were treated with 25 mg of pLH and monitored by ultrasonography every 12 h for 48 h. Ovulation occurred in 3 of 9, 8 of 10, and 9 of 10 heifers, respectively (P<0.05). In summary, there was no significant difference between observed and calculated methods of determining the beginning of follicle deviation. Deviation occurred 2.5 d after ovulation when the DF reached 6.2 mm, and ovulatory capacity was acquired by DF as small as 7.0 mm.

Effect of early luteolysis in progesterone-based timed AI protocols in Bos indicus, Bos indicus x Bos taurus, and Bos taurus heifers.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of treatment with an intravaginal progesterone-releasing device (CIDR) and estradiol benzoate (EB) on follicular dynamics in Bos indicus (n=23), Bos taurus (n=25), and cross-bred (n=23) heifers. To assess the influence of reduced serum progesterone concentrations during 8 days of treatment with a progesterone-releasing device on follicular dynamics, half of the heifers received PGF at CIDR insertion (Day 0; 3 x 2 factorial design). Mean (+/-S.E.M.) serum progesterone concentrations during CIDR treatment varied (P<0.05) among genetic groups: B. indicus (5.4+/-0.1 ng/mL), B. taurus (3.3+/-0.0 ng/mL), and cross-bred (4.3+/-0.1 ng/mL). Maximum diameter of the dominant follicle (DF) was smaller (P<0.01) in B. indicus heifers (9.5+/-0.5 mm) than in cross-bred (12.3+/-0.4 mm) or B. taurus heifers (11.6+/-0.5 mm). B. indicus experienced lower (P<0.01) ovulation rate (39.1%) than did B. taurus (72.7%) and cross-bred (84.0%). Heifers treated with PGF on Day 0 had lower (P<0.05) serum progesterone concentrations during progesterone treatment. The PGF treatment on Day 0 increased (P<0.01) the diameter of the DF (11.9+/-0.4 mm vs. 10.5+/-0.4 mm). Moreover, greater (P=0.02) ovulation rates (78.8 vs. 54.0%) occurred in heifers treated with PGF on Day 0. In summary, B. indicus heifers had greater serum progesterone concentrations, smaller DF diameter, and a lower ovulation rate compared to B. taurus heifers. Prostaglandin treatment on the day of CIDR insertion reduced serum progesterone during treatment, and resulted in increased maximum DF diameter and ovulation rate.

Glutamatergic control of food intake in pigeons: effects of central injections of glutamate, NMDA, and AMPA receptor agonists and antagonists.

The possible involvement of glutamatergic mechanisms in the control of food intake was studied in free-feeding and in 24-h food-deprived (FD24) pigeons for 1 h after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) treatment with glutamate (Glu, 0, 50, 150, 300, and 600 nmol). Glu injections dose dependently induced decreases (30-65%) in food intake (FI) and feeding duration (FD), and increases in latency to start feeding (LSF) in FD24 animals, but not in free-feeding ones. None of these treatments affected noningestive behaviors (locomotion, sleep, and preening). In FD24 pigeons, i.c.v. treatments with N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA, 0.1, 1, 4, 8, or 16 nmol) or D,L-alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-isoxazole proprionic acid (AMPA, 0.1, 1, 4, or 8 nmol) decreased FI and FD, but left LSF unchanged compared to vehicle-treated FD24 controls. Kainic acid (0.1, 0.5, and 1 nmol), or [trans-(1S,3R)-ACPD-(5NH4OH)] (ACPD, 0.1, 1, 4, 8, and 16 nmol) left unchanged the ingestive profile of FD24 pigeons. Pretreatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 (15 nmol) and the AMPA-kainate receptor antagonist CNQX (390 nmol), 20 min before an i.c.v. injection of Glu (300 nmol) induced a partial blockade of the Glu-induced decreases in FI and FD and completely inhibited the Glu-induced increase in LSF in FD24 pigeons. I.c.v. injections of MK-801 (30 nmol) and of CNQX (780 nmol) increased FI and FD and reduced LSF in free-feeding pigeons. A lower dose of MK-801 (15 nmol) increased FI and FD, but not LSF. Conversely, a lower dose of CNQX (390 nmol) reduced LSF without changing FI or FD. These findings indicate the involvement of Glu as a chemical mediator in the regulation of food intake in the pigeon, possibly acting on multiple central mechanisms in this species through NMDA- and AMPA-sensitive Glu receptors.