Corrigendum: Examination of critical factors influencing ruminant disease dynamics in the Black Sea Basin.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1174560.].

Characterization of biosecurity practices among cattle transport drivers in Spain.

Transmission of pathogens between farms via animal transport vehicles is a potential concern; however, the available information on driver routines and biosecurity measures implemented during transport is limited. Given the above, the aim of this study was to describe and characterize the prevailing practices and biosecurity measures adopted by cattle transport drivers in Spain. Eighty-two drivers were surveyed via face-to-face or remotely. The survey included questions on general characteristics of the drivers (type of journeys and vehicles) together with biosecurity practices implemented during cattle transport and vehicle hygiene practices. Results showed that several risky practices are performed quite frequently such as visiting different premises with different levels of risk (e.g., breeder and fattening farms); entering the farm premises to load/unload animals, passing by several farms to load and unload animals, or not always cleaning and disinfecting the vehicle between travels, among others. To explore similarities among the drivers and identify groups sharing specific practices, hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) was computed on the results of multiple correspondence analysis (MCA). The first three MCA dimensions (out of 13) were retained in the agglomerative clustering and four different clusters were identified. Clusters 1 and Cluster 4 accounted for 39.5% and 29.6% of respondents, respectively. The clusters were mainly differentiated by practices in the loading/unloading of cattle, such as the frequency of contact with animals remaining on the farm, and the frequency of the vehicle's disinfection between farms. Cluster 2 and Cluster 3 were of similar size, about 15% of respondents each. Cluster 2 consisted of drivers who mainly made journeys to slaughterhouse, while drivers in Cluster 3 were characterised by the use of working clothes and boots. Based on these findings, it is advisable to increase awareness on the role that animal transport can have in the spread of pathogens between cattle farms and the importance of biosecurity in preventing such transmission. There is also a need to support animal transport professionals in such task, not only through the development of initiatives to increase awareness, but also through the investment in improving cleaning and disinfection facilities and to consider the economic cost associated with some practices to not compromise the economic viability of the sector.

Examination of critical factors influencing ruminant disease dynamics in the Black Sea Basin.

Introduction: Ruminant production in the Black Sea basin (BSB) is critical for national economies and the subsistence of rural populations. Yet, zoonoses and transboundary animal diseases (TADs) are limiting and threatening the sector. To gain a more comprehensive understanding, this study characterizes key aspects of the ruminant sector in nine countries of the BSB, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Türkiye, and Ukraine. Methods: We selected six priority ruminant diseases (anthrax, brucellosis, Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease (LSD), and peste des petits ruminants (PPR)) that are present or threaten to emerge in the region. Standardized questionnaires were completed by a network of focal points and supplemented with external sources. We examined country and ruminant-specific data such as demographics, economic importance, and value chains in each country. For disease-specific data, we analysed the sanitary status, management strategies, and temporal trends of the selected diseases. Results and discussion: The shift from a centrally planned to a market economy, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, restructured the ruminant sector. This sector played a critical role in rural livelihoods within the BSB. Yet, it faced significant challenges such as the low sustainability of pastoralism, technological limitations, and unregistered farms. Additionally, ruminant health was hindered by informal animal trade as a result of economic factors, insufficient support for the development of formal trade, and socio-cultural drivers. In the Caucasus and Türkiye, where diseases were present, improvements to ruminant health were driven by access to trading opportunities. Conversely, European countries, mostly disease-free, prioritized preventing disease incursion to avoid a high economic burden. While international initiatives for disease management are underway in the BSB, there is still a need for more effective local resource allocation and international partnerships to strengthen veterinary health capacity, protect animal health and improve ruminant production.

Risk factors associated with Streptococcus suis cases on pig farms in Spain.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus suis can cause meningitis, polyarthritis and acute death in piglets. However, the risk factors associated with S. suis infection remain incompletely understood. Therefore, a longitudinal study was carried out, in which six batches from two Spanish pig farms with S. suis problems were repeatedly examined to determine possible risk factors. METHODS: A prospective case-control study was conducted, and potential risk factors were evaluated using mixed-effects logistic regression models. The explanatory variables included: (a) concomitant pathogens; (b) biomarkers associated with stress, inflammation and oxidative status; (c) farm environmental factors; and (d) parity and S. suis presence in sows. Three models were built to study the effect of these variables, including two to assess the risk factors involved in the subsequent development of disease. RESULTS: Risk factors for S. suis-associated disease included porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus co-infection at weaning (odds ratio [OR] = 6.69), sow parity (OR = 0.71), haptoglobin level before weaning (OR = 1.01), relative humidity (OR = 1.11) and temperature (OR = 0.13). LIMITATIONS: Laboratory diagnosis was done at the batch level, with individual diagnosis based on clinical signs only. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms the multifactorial nature of S. suis-associated disease, with both environmental factors and factors related to the host involved in disease development. Controlling these factors may, therefore, help prevent the appearance of disease.

Government veterinarians' perceptions of routine biosecurity focused on dairy cattle farms in north-western and north-eastern Spain.

The implementation of biosecurity measures in livestock production systems can be affected by the psychosocial factors of its stakeholders, which can be observed through their knowledge, attitudes and perceptions/practices. In Spain, there are no regulations per se to promote biosecurity. Of all stakeholders, farmers and veterinarians have been addressed in previous biosecurity studies, but not veterinarians belonging specifically to the government services. This study explores this particular group's perceptions of routine biosecurity in livestock production systems in north-western and north-eastern Spain, an understanding of which could help to improve the implementation of biosecurity measures on farms. Eleven interviews were conducted with veterinarians from different levels of the government services in Galicia and Catalonia, and were analyzed through content analysis. Dairy cattle farms were considered as the reference livestock production systems. The respondents stress the limited availability of staff and time resources for biosecurity. The advisory role of government veterinarians is not well recognized among farmers, who feel that their services prioritize their sanctioning role. In fact, government veterinarians consider that farmers only implement biosecurity measures to avoid being sanctioned, and not because they are aware of the importance of biosecurity. Meanwhile, the participants comment that biosecurity regulations should be flexible and need to consider the contexts of the farms where biosecurity measures are implemented. Finally, government veterinarians are willing to attend biosecurity meetings together with all farm stakeholders, at which the government services could be informed about biosecurity issues on farms. The person who could take on the biosecurity advisory role should be defined, along with further discussion of such matters as the responsibilities of each stakeholder. Government veterinary services need to be considered in studies of biosecurity operations in order to improve their implementation. It is therefore concluded that government veterinarians are seeking to balance their own institutional perspective with that of farmers and veterinarians in the routine implementation of biosecurity measures.

Evaluation of the economic impact of classical and African swine fever epidemics using OutCosT, a new spreadsheet-based tool.

African swine fever (ASF) and classical swine fever (CSF) are two major transboundary animal diseases of swine with important socioeconomic consequences at farm, subnational and national level. The objective of this study was to evaluate the direct cost of outbreaks and their control at country/regional level in four countries: namely CSF in Colombia in 2015-2016, the retrospective cost of ASF in the Philippines in 2019 and in a province of Vietnam in 2020 and a hypothetical ASF scenario in one region in North Macedonia, using the newly developed Outbreak Costing Tool (OutCosT). The tool calculates the costs of 106 different items, broken down by up to four types of farms, and by who assumes the cost (whether veterinary services, farmers or other stakeholders). The total cost of CSF in Colombia was US$ 3.8 million, of which 88% represented the cost of the vaccination campaign. For ASF, there were wide differences between countries: US$ 8,26,911 in Lao Cai (Vietnam), US$ 33,19,666 in North Macedonia and over US$ 58 million in the Philippines. While in the Philippines and Vietnam, 96-98% of the cost occurred in the affected farms, the highest expenditure in North Macedonia scenario was the movement control of the neighbouring and at-risk farms (77%). These important differences between countries depend on the spread of the disease, but also on the production systems affected and the measures applied. Apart from the financial cost, these diseases have other negative impacts, especially in the livelihoods of smallholder farms. The OutCosT tool also allows users to evaluate qualitatively other important aspects related to the epidemics, such as the impact on human health, the environment, animal welfare, socioeconomic vulnerability, trading and political response. OutCosT, which is a FAO corporate tool (available online at: https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/faoweb/animal-health/OutCosT_PIG.xlsx), can be an important tool to support country authorities to rapidly respond to a swine disease outbreak by estimating the associated costs and for advocacy purposes to mobilize resources at national or international levels.

Evaluation of the sensitivity of the classical swine fever surveillance system in two free zones in Colombia.

Infection with the classical swine fever virus (CSFV) causes a disease in pigs that ranges from a hyperacute form in which animals die in a few hours to subclinical disease. Due to this wide range of virulence, several complementary surveillance strategies should be implemented for the early detection of the disease. The objective of the present study was to determine the sensitivity of the surveillance system to detect CSFV outbreaks in a free zone (Zone 1) and in a zone undergoing an eradication process (Zone 2) in Colombia. Stochastic scenario tree models were used to describe the population and surveillance structures and to determine the probability of CSFV detection. The total sensitivity of the surveillance system in the case of a single infected farm in Zone 1 was 31.4% (CI 95%: 7.2-54.1) and in the case of 5 infected farms was 85.2% (CI 95%: 67.3-93.7), while in Zone 2 the sensitivities were 27.8% (CI 95%: 6.4-55.1) and 82.5% (CI 95%: 65-92.9), respectively. The on-farm passive surveillance shows the highest sensitivity for detection of a single CSFV infected farm in both zones (22.8% in Zone 1 and 22.5% in Zone 2). The probability of detection was higher in a family / backyard premise than on a commercial farm in both zones. The passive surveillance at slaughterhouse had a sensitivity of 5.3% and 4.5% for the detection of a single infected farm in Zone 1 and 2, respectively. Active surveillance presented a range of sensitivity between 2.2% and 4.5%. In conclusion, the sensitivity of the surveillance in the two studied zones was quite high, one of reasons for this good sensitivity being the sentinel network based on the voluntary participation of 5,500 collaborators that were trained for the identification and notification of diseases of national interest.

Stochastic Assessment of the Economic Impact of Streptococcus suis-Associated Disease in German, Dutch and Spanish Swine Farms.

The economic assessment of animal diseases is essential for decision-making, including the allocation of resources for disease control. However, that assessment is usually hampered by the lack of reliable data on disease incidence, or treatment and control measures, and that is particularly true for swine production diseases, such as infections caused by Streptococcus suis. Therefore, we deployed a questionnaire survey of clinical swine veterinarians to obtain the input data needed for a stochastic model to calculate the costs caused by S. suis, which was implemented in three of the main swine producing countries in Europe: Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. S. suis-associated disease is endemic in those countries in all production phases, though nursery was the phase most severely impacted. In affected nursery units, between 3.3 and 4.0% of pigs had S. suis-associated disease and the mortalities ranged from 0.5 to 0.9%. In Germany, the average cost of S. suis per pig (summed across all production phases) was 1.30 euros (90% CI: 0.53-2.28), in the Netherlands 0.96 euros (90% CI: 0.27-1.54), and in Spain 0.60 euros (90% CI: 0.29-0.96). In Germany, that cost was essentially influenced by the expenditure in early metaphylaxis in nursery and in autogenous vaccines in sows and nursery pigs; in the Netherlands, by expenditure on autogenous vaccines in sows and nursery pigs; and in Spain, by the expenditures in early metaphylaxis and to a lesser extent by the mortality in nursery pigs. Therefore, the differences in costs between countries can be explained to a great extent by the measures to control S. suis implemented in each country. In Spain and in Germany, use of antimicrobials, predominantly beta-lactams, is still crucial for the control of the disease.

Most likely causes of infection and risk factors for tuberculosis in Spanish cattle herds.

INTRODUCTION: This study aims to assess the most likely causes of Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) breakdowns in Spanish cattle herds and to identify the main risk factors at farm-level. METHODS: Causes of bTB breakdowns were assessed through a qualitative risk-assessment based on decision-trees by analysing surveillance data from 3819 bTB breakdowns detected during 2014-2016. Results were compared to veterinary officers' (VO) opinions. Risk factors were identified through a case-control study with data from 196 bTB cases and 160 controls collected during 2014-2018. RESULTS: The decision tree analysis identified residual infections and interactions with wildlife as the most frequent causes of breakdowns (36% each), followed by purchasing infected cattle (14%). These results were not supported by VOs' opinions. According to the regression models, the risk of bTB increased by sharing pastures (odds ratios [OR] = 2.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.6-4.4) and by increasing inwards cattle movements. The presence of wildlife reservoirs represented a significant risk for extensively-managed farms if other cattle farms are situated within a one-kilometre radius (OR = 2.3; 95% CI = 1.1-5.1). DISCUSSION: To prevent bTB breakdowns, efforts should be devoted to decrease the likelihood of residual infections and improve farm biosecurity. The adoption of biosecurity measures might be influenced by farmers' perceptions, which should be carefully evaluated to ensure the effectiveness of such strategies.

Influence on the implementation of biosecurity measures in dairy cattle farms: Communication between veterinarians and dairy farmers.

This study was carried out in two regions in Spain (Catalonia and Galicia) through eight focus groups; four for dairy farmers and four for veterinarians. The results showed that dairy farmers and veterinarians attributed responsibility to one another for not following biosecurity practices. The study brings to light contradictions among veterinarians and certain individual veterinary practices that participated in the study, which lead to doubt and confusion on the part of dairy farmers. Distinct perceptions were also identified of the role that government authorities should play in relation both to training and sanctions as a means of improving biosecurity on dairy farms. Additionally, the participants expressed varying opinions as to whether biosecurity measures ought to be made mandatory or remain voluntary. Results from this study highlight the need to promote initiatives through which distinct stakeholders such as veterinarians, government authorities, and dairy farmers can develop consensus-based messages on the implementation of biosecurity practices.

Factors Associated with the Introduction of Mycobacterium avium spp. Paratuberculosis (MAP) into Dairy Herds in Galicia (North-West Spain): The Perception of Experts.

This study aimed at quantifying expert opinions on the risk factors involved in Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in dairy cattle herds. For this purpose, potential risk factors associated with the introduction of MAP into dairies were chosen based on a literature review and discussions with researchers and veterinarians. For each factor, a decision tree was developed, and key questions were included in each. Answers to these key questions led to different events within each decision tree. An expert opinion workshop was organized (following the recommendations of the OIE), and ordinal values ranging from 0 to 9 (i.e., a null to very high likelihood of infection) were assigned to each event. The potential risk factors were also incorporated into a structured questionnaire that was responded to by 93 farms where the sanitary status against MAP was known. Thereby, based on the values given by the experts and the information collected in the questionnaires, each farm was assigned a score based on their MAP entry risk. From these scores (contrast variable) and using a ROC curve, the cut-off that best discriminated MAP-positive and -negative farms was estimated. The most important risk factors for the introduction of MAP, according to expert opinions, involved purchase and grazing practices related to animals under six months of age. The scores obtained for each farm, also based on the expert opinions, allowed MAP positive/MAP negative farms to be discriminated with 68.8% sensitivity and 68.7% specificity. These data should be useful for focusing future training initiatives and improving risk-reduction strategies in the dairy industry.

Cattle farmers' perception of biosecurity measures and the main predictors of behaviour change: The first European-wide pilot study.

The importance of biosecurity as a strategy to prevent and control infectious diseases has increased substantially over the last few decades. Several studies have reported a low implementation level of biosecurity measures (BSM), particularly in cattle farms. In addition, a recent study demonstrated that cattle farmers are well aware of the recommended BSM and recognize them as more effective (in terms of time and costs) than treatment for disease. Therefore, other factors must be considered when it comes to understanding the decision-making process followed by a farmer regarding the adoption of BSM. This study analysed the possible influence of five mental constructs described in the health belief model (HBM) on the adoption of BSM and assessed the possible association of these constructs with different demographic and socio-psychological factors. Through an online survey, 988 questionnaires were completed by cattle farmers originating from Belgium, France, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands. The study revealed that the actual implementation of the BSM seems to be significantly influenced by the farmers' perception of the measures' benefits and the perception of health responsibility. Both constructs are influenced by the farmers' personality in terms of risk aversion and biosecurity knowledge. It was also found that organic farmers had a significantly lower perception of the BSM benefits and of their responsibility towards animal, public and environmental health when compared with other types of farmer. Organic farmers in this study seemed less likely to implement biosecurity measures. To increase the adoption of BSM by cattle farmers, it is therefore important to emphasise the actual evidence-based benefits of the measures and to investigate further how to strengthen cattle farmers' sense of responsibility towards animal, public and environmental health.

Descriptive epidemiology of classical swine fever outbreaks in the period 2013-2018 in Colombia.

Classical swine fever (CSF) is an infectious viral disease caused by an RNA virus belonging to the Pestivirus genus. A total of 134 outbreaks of CSF have occurred in the last seven years in the North of Colombia. The objective of this study was the characterization of the herds affected by CSF from 2013 to 2018. Most of the outbreaks (95%) occured in backyard piggeries. The principal causes of transmission of CSF were the introduction of infected pigs (38%), movements of people (37%) and unknown origin (13%). The epidemiological relationships with 15 affected farms explained 31 outbreaks. The overall attack and mortality rates were 39% and 32%, respectively. The main clinical signs were high fever (67%), incoordination of movements (54%), and prostration (52%). Seventy-three percent of the herds had not been vaccinated against CSF and 17% had been only partially vaccinated. A spatio-temporal analysis, using a Poisson regression model, revealed two clusters with high risk; the first and largest one from 2014 to 2016 had a relative risk (RR) of 13.4 and included part of the departments of Atlántico, Bolívar, Cesar, La Guajira, Norte de Santander, Magdalena and Sucre; and the second cluster (RR = 9.6 in 2016) included municipalities in the north of the department of Cordoba.

Knowledge and attitudes about rabies in dog-bite victims in Bangladesh.

Rabies is an important zoonotic disease that causes several thousand deaths in Asian countries. Bangladesh launched an elimination programme in 2010 based on the mass vaccination of dogs, management of dog bites, application of post-exposure prophylaxis and communication and social mobilization. The aim of this study is to ascertain the behaviour of and knowledge about dog-bite victims. A cross-sectional descriptive study was performed on 885 dog-bite victims who presented themselves for post-exposure rabies vaccination to six randomly selected vaccination centers, in addition to a tertiary-level hospital in Bangladesh. Most dog-bite victims were male (70%) and with very low or no education qualifications (75%). Respondents' knowledge of rabies was low: 58% were unaware of the consequences of a dog bite and 52% did not know about any indication of rabies. Most knew that rabies in humans can be prevented after dog bites, but up to 70% did not give a correct answer for other questions related to the prevention and treatment of rabies. Knowledge and attitudes about rabies is closely related to level of education. Finally, 58 of those surveyed (6.4%) did not complete the post-exposure prophylaxis correctly. In conclusion, knowledge about rabies among Bangladeshi citizens is low. An intensive plan to inform and educate people about dog bites, the risk of rabies and measures to adopt for preventing the disease should be implemented in order to reduce risk, including the need to complete post-exposure treatment.

Profiles of opinions among farmers and veterinarians towards the Tuberculosis Eradication Programme in cattle in Spain.

The level of commitment among farmers and veterinarians may have a significant influence on the effectiveness of control efforts against tuberculosis in cattle (bTB), facilitating or hindering the achievement of its eradication. In this study, we investigated the opinions and attitudes of farmers and veterinarians towards the bTB eradication programme in Spain. Our aim was to assess the existence of groups of people that share the same arguments and outline their characteristic features. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire using a telephone survey in a random sample of 706 farmers and 180 veterinarians. The relationships between the variables and individuals were explored by using Multiple Correspondence Analysis. Afterwards, we applied Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components in order to identify and characterise the opinion profiles. We identified three different groups of opinions characterised by the attitude towards bTB diagnostic tests, the perception on the importance and the zoonotic impact of bTB, and the perceived importance of other domestic reservoirs. There were people with positive and people with negative attitudes towards the programme, and a third group with a tendency to not respond. The presence of opposite profiles was observed among farmers. Veterinarians, on the other hand, were more homogeneous, especially the group of veterinarians working in the official veterinary services, as the vast majority of them expressed a positive attitude towards the programme. Nevertheless, there were also a few veterinarians who showed the same negative attitude as farmers. Education and communication are of paramount importance to ensure the adequate commitment of all people involved in the eradication programme, and our results highlight that, in Spain, both should be improved. However, this alone may not be enough to change people's behaviours, and more complex change interventions might be necessary for people with a negative attitude. Such strategies should target the perception on the role of wildlife reservoirs, the uncertainty of ante-mortem tests results, as well as the beliefs on the importance of bTB.

Dairy farmers' decision-making to implement biosecurity measures: A study of psychosocial factors.

Biosecurity measures are a set of management procedures that prevent the risk of introducing and spreading infectious diseases to a farm, although these measures are rarely implemented in dairy farms. There are some studies that have identified that the decision to implement biosecurity measures can be influenced by several psychosocial factors (attitudes and behaviours). Thus, the objective of this study was to examine the psychosocial factors (and their interactions) influencing the implementation of biosecurity measures in dairy farms in Spain, through the views of dairy farmers and veterinarians from Catalonia (northeast Spain) and Galicia (northwest Spain). Face-to-face in-depth interviews were performed with 16 dairy farmers (nine from Catalonia and seven from Galicia) and 16 veterinarians (eight from Catalonia and eight from Galicia). Grounded theory analysis was performed on the transcripts, following the subtopics of: information sources, individual factors of the farmer, social dynamics, official veterinary services and other factors. The study identified the importance of veterinarians as a source of information, including their communication skills, the individual experiences of farmers, traditions of the farms and availability of time and space in the dairy farmer's decisions making. Further, it suggests the need to deepen the knowledge of the farm workers and the obligatory biosecurity measures. This research represents a starting point to develop future strategies to improve the implementation of biosecurity measures in dairy farms.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the surveillance system for tuberculosis in cattle in Spain.

In Spain, the eradication of tuberculosis (TB) in cattle has had some setbacks and therefore we need to re-evaluate the current surveillance strategies. The Spanish cattle TB surveillance system consists of three components: a) routine skin testing, b) slaughterhouse surveillance, and c) pre-movement controls. Our objectives were to assess the effectiveness of the whole surveillance system and evaluate the relative contribution of each of those components, both at national and at the province level. The effectiveness was estimated based on both the sensitivity of detection per year and the time until detection. Moreover, we evaluated the impact of different factors on that effectiveness. We used a stochastic model that simulated the spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex (MTC) infection within cattle herds that was modified to incorporate the three components of TB surveillance. Input data, at the province level, on cattle movements off-farm or the frequency of the routine screening were provided by the Spanish Ministry for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Under the current conditions, 96.1% of Spanish herds were detected within one year after their infection (i.e. mean sensitivity of TB surveillance), although that detection took on average 178 days. The surveillance system effectiveness was highly dependent on the routine skin testing, responsible for the detection of almost 90% of the infected herds, while slaughterhouse surveillance and pre-movement controls contributed only to the identification of a small proportion of infected herds. We observed substantial differences in the effectiveness of the surveillance components among Spanish provinces, although in general, the sensitivities were high. The most influential factor on the efficiency of TB detection in Spain was, by far, the frequency of routine controls, followed by the sensitivity of the test used. In a context of reduced funding for cattle TB eradication, the frequency of testing should be adapted based on risk-based surveillance strategies, i.e. efforts should focus on herds more likely to be infected, but also in herds more likely to infect other herds. While slaughterhouse surveillance seems a cost-effective strategy, the use of pre-movement testing at least in areas of low incidence should be further evaluated.

Myxomatosis and Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease: A 30-Year Study of the Occurrence on Commercial Farms in Spain.

In this retrospective study, we describe the relative occurrence of clinical myxomatosis, and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), on 1714 commercial farms visited in Spain, between 1988 and 2018. We determined the annual prevalence based on 817 visits to 394 farms affected by myxomatosis. Myxomatosis was more prevalent from August to March, being lowest in June (3%) and highest in September (8.9%). With regard to RHD, we assessed 253 visits to 156 affected farms. We analyzed mean annual and monthly incidence. Two important RHD epidemics occurred; the first in 1988-1989 due to RHDV GI.1 (also known as RHDV), and the second from 2011 to 2013 due to RHDV GI.2 (RHDV2 or RHDVb). These epidemics occurred at times when effective vaccination had not been carried out. Relative monthly incidence in 2011-2018 was higher from April to August (p < 0.001). The results we obtained from 1404 necropsies on 102 farms did not clearly relate serosanguinous nasal discharge in rabbits with disease caused by GI.2 infection. We also assessed vaccination schedules used on 200 doe farms visited from the end of 2014 to 2018; 95.5% vaccinated against myxomatosis and 97.5% against RHD. Both diseases remain prevalent; however, effective vaccination has produced a steady decline in myxomatosis and RHDV GI.1 and GI.2 on-farm detection. The maintenance of high hygienic standards will be needed to continue and improve this control. However, further studies are required to investigate the causes of sustained virus presence and vaccine breaks.

Risk factors for new bovine brucellosis infections in Colombian herds.

BACKGROUND: Bovine brucellosis is a zoonotic disease that causes substantial economic losses and has a strong impact on public health. The main objective of this paper is to determine the risk factors for new infections of Brucella abortus on Colombian cattle farms previously certified as being free of brucellosis. A case-control study was conducted by comparing 98 cases (farms certified as brucellosis-free for three or more years but became infected) with 93 controls (farms that remained brucellosis-free during at least the previous three years). The farms were matched by herd size and geographical location (municipality). Information was obtained via a questionnaire completed by veterinary officers through a personal interview with the herd owners. RESULTS: Two-thirds of the herds (67%) were dairy herds, 16% were beef herds, and 17% were dual-purpose (beef and milk) herds. After exploratory univariate analysis, all explanatory variables with a p-value of ≤0.20 were included in a logistic regression model using the forward stepwise method to select the model with the best goodness of fit. The significant risk factors were the replacement of animals from farms not certified as brucellosis-free compared to replacement from certified brucellosis-free farms (OR = 4.84, p-value < 0.001) and beef cattle farms compared to dairy cattle farms (OR = 3.61, p-value = 0.017). When herds with and without artificial insemination were compared, it was observed that farms that used natural breeding with bulls from non-certified herds had a higher risk than farms using artificial insemination (OR = 2.45, p-value = 0.037), but when the bulls came from brucellosis-free farms, farms with natural breeding were less affected (OR = 0.30, p-value = 0.004) than farms using artificial insemination, whether with frozen semen from certified brucellosis-free herds or fresh semen from uncontrolled herds. The latter is commonly sold to neighbouring farms. CONCLUSIONS: The government should make efforts to inform farmers about the risks involved in the introduction of semen and replacement heifers from farms that are not certified as brucellosis-free and to establish measures to control these practices.

Characterization and evolution of countries affected by bovine brucellosis (1996-2014).

This paper describes the global distribution and temporal evolution of bovine brucellosis due to Brucella abortus during a 19-year period (1996-2014) using the information officially reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) by veterinary services of 156 countries. Variables that can influence the health status of bovine brucellosis (i.e., year, per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), continent and bovine population) were also analysed. Countries were classified into three categories of health situations: ENZOOTIC: countries infected, which may have been free of brucellosis but for periods of fewer than 3 years; NON-ENZOOTIC: countries where the disease was present but that had at least a 3-year period without the disease; and FREE: countries where the disease remained absent during the whole period. The countries free from bovine brucellosis, or in the process of eradication, were located in Oceania and Europe, while the more affected regions were Central and South America, Africa and parts of Asia. Among the Non-Enzootic countries, the results showed that a very high proportion managed to control the disease during the period of study, with a sharp decline in the percentage of infected countries from 71% in 1996 to 10% in 2014. Among the Enzootic countries, a much smaller proportion managed to control the disease, with a slight drop in the percentage of infected countries from 92% in 1996 to 80% in 2014. A relationship was found between the status of the disease and the availability of economic resources; thus, countries with a high GDP per capita tended to be free from bovine brucellosis. On the other hand, countries with a larger bovine population showed a greater probability to have the disease present. An increase in surveillance programmes and implementation of control policies were observed during the period of study.