Associations Between PTSD and Depressive Symptoms and Victimization Among Female College Students: A Latent Class Analysis.

Research on subgroups of female college students who share similar experiences of childhood maltreatment (CM) and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is sparse. The primary aims of the current study are: (a) to identify subgroups of victims related to experience of psychological, physical, and sexual CM and IPV and (b) to test the association between subgroups and depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. Survey data was collected from 327 female students at a public university in the Northeast. Three distinct subgroups, that is, victimization classes, were found using Latent Class Analysis: A lifetime victimization class, comprised of females reporting high rates of CM and IPV across types (19.0% of the sample), a childhood victimization class (26.9%); and a low victimization class (54.1%). Depressive symptom severity was positively associated with lifetime and childhood, relative to low, victimization class membership. PTSD symptom severity was associated with the childhood victimization class relative to both lifetime and low victimization class. Subgroups of institutions of higher education (IHE) females who share CM and IPV victimization experiences are discernable. The co-occurrence of IPV and CM in female college students is not uncommon. PTSD symptom severity may be more related to CM than IPV in IHE female students.

Quantifying College Students' Bystander Behavior to Prevent Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence: Can We Make Improvements?

Sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) are prevalent on college campuses, and bystander intervention programs are often employed as a method for preventing such violence. Unfortunately, there are concerns about current strategies for the measurement and quantification of bystander behavior. Accounting for the opportunity to engage in bystander behavior is theorized to be important, but it remains unclear if doing so improves the validity of the measurement of bystander behavior. The current study compares four methods of quantifying bystander behavior when information about the opportunity to help is also available. First-year undergraduate students (n = 714) from three universities participated. Participants completed the risky situations subscale of the Bystander Behavior Scale, using a modified response scale to measure both bystander behavior and opportunity for such behavior. Measures of criterion variables theorized to be linked with bystander behavior (efficacy to intervene, responsibility to intervene, and moral courage) were also completed. Four types of bystander behavior scores were calculated: breadth, missed opportunity, offset, and likelihood. Likelihood scores, which reflect the likelihood of engaging in bystander behavior when presented with the opportunity to help, correlated more strongly with the criterion variables than other scores. Likelihood scores demonstrated added value in quantifying bystander behavior over other scoring methods. Findings from the current study add to the knowledge of how best to measure and quantify bystander behavior. Such knowledge has significant implications for research on correlates of bystander behavior and evaluations of bystander intervention programs for sexual assault and IPV prevention.

The Relationship Behavior Survey: A Comprehensive Measure of Psychological Intimate Partner Violence for Adolescents.

Commonly used scales of psychological intimate partner violence (ψIPV) for adolescents may not include sufficient items to measure adequately different forms of ψ aggressive behaviors. They may also characterize as harmful ψ aggressive behaviors occurring in non-conflictual or joking contexts. The current study examined a new scale, the Relationship Behavior Survey (RBS), which was designed to measure three different forms of ψIPV (denigrating, controlling, and intrusive behaviors) and the appraisals of the perpetrator's intent. Factor structure was examined, and incremental validity was tested by examining the relation of the RBS to general aggressive tendencies and physical IPV after accounting for the emotional abuse and threatening behavior subscales of the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI). Criterion validity and gender differences were also examined. Data were collected using an online survey from a national sample of 1,100 13 to 17-year-olds in the United States (51% identified as female, 80% as White) in a dating relationship. Confirmatory factor analysis supported one ψIPV construct for males and females. The RBS demonstrated incremental validity; criterion validity was supported for controlling intent for males and females and mistrust intent for females. Joking intent was the most reported intent for males and correlated unexpectedly with physical IPV. The RBS captures a larger range of ψIPV behaviors than the CADRI. The addition of intent appraisals provides important information to differentiate forms of ψIPV, particularly in relation to acts motivated by coercion and mistrust.

Party frequency, party-safety strategies, and sexual victimization among first-year female college students.

Objective: This study examined whether the use of party-safety strategies weakens the association between frequency of party attendance and sexual victimization among first-year female college students. Participants: First-year female college students (n = 450) from three universities in the United States participated in this study. Methods: Participants completed questionnaires on frequency of party attendance, use of party-safety strategies, and sexual victimization. Results: Frequency of party attendance was positively associated with sexual victimization. This association was moderated by use of party-safety strategies: frequency of party attendance was unrelated to sexual victimization when students reported greater use of party-safety strategies. However, frequency of party attendance was positively related to sexual victimization when students reported lower use of party-safety strategies. Conclusions: Teaching and reinforcing party-safety strategies may be helpful additions to efforts to prevent sexual victimization on college campuses.

The Bystander Behavior (For Friends) Scale: Factor Structure and Correlation With Prior Victimization.

The Bystander Behavior (for Friends) Scale (BBS) offers a promising method of studying prosocial bystander behavior in the context of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. The underlying structure of the BBS has only been studied in the development sample, which was predominantly White and from one university in the Northeast region of the United States. This single sample raises questions about the replicability and generalizability of the factor structure. In addition, confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) methods, which are favored for binary data, were not used in the developmental sample. There also is limited research on individual characteristics that may relate to engagement in different types of bystander behavior. The primary aims of the current study were to (a) use CFA to evaluate the factor structure of the BBS in a sample of university undergraduates recruited from four universities and (b) test associations between prior victimization (general and family-specific) and BBS factors. University undergraduates (n = 556) from four U.S. universities comprised the sample. Weighted least squares CFA confirmed the original four-factor model of the BBS, namely, Risky Situations, Accessing Resources, Proactive Behaviors, and Party Safety. The Proactive Behaviors factor was positively associated with both general and family-specific prior victimization. The Risky Situations and Party Safety factors were positively associated with general prior victimization but were not associated with family-specific prior victimization. The Accessing Resources factor was not associated with either general or family-specific prior victimization. The BBS is multidimensional, and the factor structure is robust. The different associations between certain types of bystander behavior and prior victimization highlight the potential value in considering the BBS factors separately.

TakeCARE, a Video to Promote Bystander Behavior on College Campuses: Replication and Extension.

Previous research has demonstrated that college students who view TakeCARE, a video bystander program designed to encourage students to take action to prevent sexual and relationship violence (i.e., bystander behavior), display more bystander behavior relative to students who view a control video. The current study aimed to replicate and extend these findings by testing two different methods of administering TakeCARE and examining moderators of TakeCARE's effects on bystander behavior. Students at four universities (n = 557) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) view TakeCARE in a monitored computer lab, (b) view TakeCARE at their own convenience after receiving an email link to the video, or (c) view a video about study skills (control group). Participants completed measures of bystander behavior at baseline and at a 1-month follow-up. Participants in both TakeCARE conditions reported more bystander behavior at follow-up assessments, compared with participants in the control condition. The beneficial effect of TakeCARE did not differ significantly across administration methods. However, the effects of TakeCARE on bystander behavior were moderated by students' perceptions of campus responsiveness to sexual violence, with more potent effects when students perceived their institution as responsive to reports of sexual violence.

Distinct and Overlapping Correlates of Psychological and Physical Partner Violence Perpetration.

Despite its high prevalence, adverse impact, and potential significance in understanding the onset of physical partner violence (PV), there has been surprisingly scant research on psychological PV perpetration. The present research, guided by social learning and attachment theories, addresses this gap in the literature by examining overlapping and distinct correlates for psychological and physical PV perpetration in emerging adults. Undergraduates (N = 504) with current or recent dating experience were recruited to complete a self-report survey. The survey included measures of emotional and physical child maltreatment, witnessing physical family violence, insecure attachment, hostility, and anger. The sample was 63% female and racially and ethnically diverse (50% non-White, non-Hispanic, or Hispanic of any race). Insecure attachment and anger, but not hostility or child maltreatment, were uniquely correlated with psychological PV, whereas only physical child maltreatment and witnessing physical family violence were unique correlates for physical PV. Neither emotional nor physical child maltreatment potentiated relations between insecure attachment, hostility, or anger and either form of PV. Although females were more likely to perpetrate psychological and physical PV, correlates for each form of PV did not vary by gender. The relations between physical child maltreatment and physical PV are consistent with a social learning theory explanation for physical PV. Insecure attachment and anger appear to be particularly important correlates for psychological, but not physical, PV. Thus, psychological and physical PV may have distinct risk profiles and may require different intervention targets.

Knowledge of Suicide Risk Factors, But Not Suicide Ideation Severity, Is Greater Among College Students Who Viewed 13 Reasons Why.

Objective: To test associations between viewing 13 Reasons Why, Season 1 and past week suicide ideation severity, behavior risk, stigma, and knowledge in college students. To explore whether personal exposure to suicide and depressive symptom severity moderated these associations. Participants: Eight-hundred and eighteen college students, 64% (n = 522) of whom watched 13 Reasons Why. Methods: Students completed surveys online. Multivariate negative binomial regressions were used to test associations between watching 13 Reasons Why and suicide-related variables, and interaction terms. Results: Suicide ideation severity and suicide behavior risk were not significantly associated with viewing 13 Reasons Why; however, there was limited statistical power to detect associations. The association between watching 13 Reasons Why and greater suicide knowledge was stronger among those who did not have personal exposure to suicide. Conclusions: 13 Reasons Why may be a platform for psychoeducation on suicide, particularly among those who do not have personal exposure.

Blunted Arousal in Response to Psychological Stress is Associated with Current Suicide Ideation.

The purpose of this study was to test the association between arousal in response to psychological stress, as measured by standardized maximum decrease in high-frequency heart rate variability (HF HRV) during a stressful laboratory task, and current suicide ideation (SI). 81 emerging adult college students completed a stressful laboratory task consisting of the computerized Stroop and Cyberball while having their heart activity recorded. Spectral analysis and Fast Fourier transformations were used to decompose and transform the recording into the high (0.15 Hz-0.4 Hz) frequency component. After the task, participants completed the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation to measure current SI, the Beck Depression Inventory-II to assess depressive symptom severity, and a brief medical history. Multivariate negative binomial regression analysis showed that the negative association between SI and arousal in response to psychological stress remained statistically significant when suicide attempt history, depressive symptom severity, female gender, and current smoking behavior were controlled. Identification of potential biomarkers for SI is important for suicide behavior prevention given limits to self-report SI assessment. Our results suggest arousal in response to psychological stress merits further consideration as a biomarker for current SI.

Correlates of Persistent Victimization by Romantic Partners: A Short-Term Prospective Study.

There has been limited prospective investigation of correlates of persistent (repeated within and across relationships) physical intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization compared to episodic (not repeated within or across relationships) IPV in young adulthood. The primary aim of the current study was to examine prior victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, psychological IPV (emotional abuse and threats), and remaining with the same partner, as unique correlates of persistent physical IPV during a 6-month period. Female undergraduates who completed baseline and follow-up assessments (n = 254) were classified into victimization groups according to their self-report of physical IPV: no physical IPV (65.0%), persistent IPV (at baseline and follow-up [11.0%]), and episodic IPV (at follow-up [9.8%] or baseline only [14.2%]). Multinomial logistic regression analyses showed that the number of prior victimizations, PTSD hyperarousal symptoms, psychological IPV at baseline, and remaining with the same partner at follow-up significantly discriminated the IPV groups. The likelihood of membership in the persistent physical IPV group was associated with all variables. Episodic physical IPV at baseline only was associated with fewer childhood victimizations and being in a new relationship at follow-up. Results highlight assessment and intervention approaches that may assist females experiencing both persistent and episodic physical IPV.

Comparison of the CADRI and CTS2 for Measuring Psychological and Physical Dating Violence Perpetration and Victimization.

Advancing dating violence (DV) research requires consistent conceptualization and measurement. However, empirical sudies on the measurement of psychological and physical DV perpetration and victimization are uncommon. There were three aims of the current study: (a) to examine the construct validity of psychological and physical DV perpetration and victimization on the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI) and Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) using factor analysis; (b) to compare empirically derived DV scales with ones using face valid definitions of psychological and physical DV within each measure; and (c) to compare results obtained from the CADRI with those obtained from the CTS2. A diverse sample of undergraduates (N = 512; 63.9% female, 50.0% White, 16.2% Black, and 22.9% Latino) completed an online survey. There were two-factor solutions for each survey and DV perpetration and victimization: moderate psychological DV and severe psychological/physical DV on the CADRI; and moderate psychological and physical DV and severe psychological and physical DV on the CTS2. Multiple regression analyses showed that results were similar for empirically and rationally derived scoring methods with one exception: On the CTS2, risk factors associated with moderate DV were not the same as those associated with psychological DV. Moreover, the unique contribution of risk factors to each form of DV depended on which survey was used. In multivariate studies of risk factors associated with psychological and physical DV, the CADRI and CTS2 do not appear to be interchangeable, and may lead to different conclusions about the relative importance of risk factors.

Cognitive-Affective Correlates of Suicide Ideation and Attempt: Mindfulness is Negatively Associated with Suicide Attempt History but not State Suicidality.

The objective of this study was to test whether 3 cognitive-affective correlates,--mindfulness, emotion reactivity, and depressive symptom severity-have different associations with current suicidal ideation (SI), a history of suicide attempt (SA) and SA + SI among emerging adults. Whether impulsive-aggression (IA) moderated associations between cognitive-affective correlates of suicidal behavior and suicidality was also tested. Survey data on current SI, SA history, mindfulness, emotion reactivity, depressive symptom severity, and IA were collected from 780 emerging adults. Results from multinomial logistic regression analysis showed greater depressive symptom severity among emerging adults with current SI, regardless of SA history. Those with a history of SA reported greater depressive symptom severity and less mindfulness than controls. IA did not moderate relationships of SI and/or SA and mindfulness, emotion reactivity, or depressive symptom severity. Mindfulness is a marker of SA, and depressive symptom severity is associated with current SI and SA history in emerging adults. IA does not moderate these associations. To the extent that a history of SA is indicative of elevated trait-like suicide risk and SI indicates state suicidality, our findings suggest that mindfulness protects against longer-term vulnerability to suicide while depressive symptom severity is associated with suicide state-trait risk.

School-Based Bullying and Teen Dating Violence Prevention Laws: Overlapping or Distinct?

The most recent legislative attempts to curb violence in schools have been school-based dating violence prevention laws. In the previous decade, there was an increase in legislation designed to prevent bullying in schools; these laws now exist in 50 states. However, most anti-bullying laws provide an expansive definition of bullying that includes any type of peer aggression, harassment, or teen dating violence (TDV). Having several different state and federal laws aimed at curtailing multiple forms of aggression may produce confusion about appropriate intervention and disciplinary responses, requiring school districts to develop parallel sets of policies, educational curricula, intervention approaches, and reporting requirements for overlapping behaviors that can be simultaneously peer aggression, bullying, harassment, and TDV. We conducted a systematic search of applicable laws and systematically coded those we identified for relevant content (i.e., definitions, covered locales, protected groups, and personnel, procedural, preventive, and disclosure elements). Anti-bullying laws were typically more detailed than dating violence laws. TDV laws were more likely to target TDV and control intimate behavior and to provide for education about healthy relationships. Both types of laws often mandated trainings; specified reportable behaviors; discussed sanctions, recommendations, and interventions; and mentioned counseling, specially trained staff persons, or designated specialists. Both anti-bullying and TDV laws also sometimes directed reporting of aggregate incident rates and impacts of prevention efforts. Neither type of law tended to specify school and community resources or prevention approaches. Results inform discussion of the merits of different approaches to school-based violence prevention laws.

Personality correlates of intimate partner violence subtypes: A latent class analysis.

Perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) represent a heterogeneous group who engage in a variety of aggressive acts which often co-occur. However, few studies take this co-occurrence into consideration. Failure to consider overlapping forms of IPV confounds understanding of risk factors for physical IPV, which in turn undermines identification, prevention, and intervention efforts. Though rarely studied in emerging adults, personality variables have recently been identified as important correlates of IPV. The primary aims of the current studies are to identify distinct subgroups of moderate and severe psychological and physical IPV and personality covariates of class membership. Two studies were conducted at different public regional universities in the northeast (n = 500; n = 497). Both samples were about two-thirds female, approximately one-half White, one-fifth Black, and one-quarter Latino, of any race. Latent Class Analysis identified three subgroups in both studies: low, moderate, and severe IPV. The severe and moderate IPV groups included those who reported threats and moderate physical IPV while the severe IPV group also included those who engaged in severe and injurious forms of physical IPV. Multinomial regression analysis showed that impulsive aggression discriminated moderate and severe from low IPV (Study 1), and more frequent emotionally abusive and controlling behavior, a hostile-dominant interpersonal style and trait aggression discriminated among all three groups, with severe IPV having the greatest likelihood of controlling behavior and aggression (Study 2). IPV is represented by distinct subgroups that vary by severity of IPV with different personality covariates. General aggressive and domineering tendencies in relationships characterize those engaging in severe IPV.

A Study Space Analysis and Narrative Review of Trauma-Informed Mediators of Dating Violence.

Research linking child maltreatment and dating violence in adolescence and emerging adulthood has proliferated in the past two decades; however, the precise mechanisms by which these experiences are related remain elusive. A trauma-informed perspective suggests four particularly promising mediators: maladaptive attachment, emotion regulation difficulties, emotional distress, and hostility. The current article characterizes the status of the empirical literature examining these four mediators using a study space analysis and a narrative review of existing research. An extensive literature search identified 42 papers (44 studies) that met the following criteria: (1) at least one measure of child maltreatment (emotional, physical, sexual, neglect, or exposure to intimate partner violence); (2) a measure of one of the four mediator variables; (3) a measure of dating violence perpetration or victimization; and (4) a sample of adolescents or young adults. The study space analysis suggested several important observations about the research on this topic, including a dearth of studies examining hostility as a mediator and little research using prospective designs or clinical samples. There are also limitations with the conceptualization and measurement of dating violence, child maltreatment, and some of the mediator variables. In addition, few studies examined more than one mediator variable in the same study. The narrative review suggested that maladaptive attachment (specifically insecure attachment styles), emotion regulation difficulties (specifically regulation of the emotion of anger), and emotional distress construed broadly represent promising mediators of the association between child maltreatment and dating violence, but conclusions about mediation must remain tentative given the state of the literature. The discussion offers recommendations for improved theoretical and empirical rigor to advance future research on mechanisms linking child maltreatment and dating violence.

A Social Ecology Analysis of Childbirth Among Females Emancipating From Foster Care.

PURPOSE: No research has examined childbirth from a national perspective among females emancipating from foster care. The present study fills this gap by: (1) documenting the rates of initial and repeat births among females ages 17 and 19 in a national prospective study and (2) identifying risk and protective factors at age 17 that predict childbirth between ages 17 and 19. METHODS: This study used data from the National Youth in Transition Database and Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System to identify risk and protective factors associated with childbirth in a national sample of transition-age female youth (N = 3,474). RESULTS: The cumulative rate of childbirth by age 19 was 21%, with higher rates reported between ages 17 and 19 (17%; n = 602) compared with age 17 or earlier (9%; n = 313). In logistic regression analysis, black race and Hispanic ethnicity, placement with relatives, runaway status, trial home visit placement, early emancipation from foster care, and lifetime incarceration histories were associated with increased likelihood of childbirth. In contrast, school enrollment and employment skills were associated with decreased likelihood of childbirth. The multivariate odds of childbirth between ages 17 and 19 increased 10-fold if youth already had a child by age 17. CONCLUSIONS: Sexual health and pregnancy prevention programs should specifically target youths who already have children. Increased attention should be paid to adolescents placed with biological families and those with histories of criminal involvement.

From Violence in the Home to Physical Dating Violence Victimization: The Mediating Role of Psychological Distress in a Prospective Study of Female Adolescents.

Symptoms of psychological distress may be one pathway through which child maltreatment and witnessing violence in the home relate to dating violence victimization. This study examined whether psychological distress in mid-adolescence mediated the link between child maltreatment and witnessing violence in early adolescence and dating violence victimization in young adulthood. The sample included female participants (N = 532) from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well Being who were 18 years or older in the fifth and final wave of data collection. At the time of entry into the study, participants were 12.81 (SD = 1.23) years old. Sixteen percent of participants identified as Hispanic; 53 % identified their race as White, 33 % as Black, and 11 % as American Indian. Results showed that psychological distress may play a causal role in the relationship of violence in the home to dating violence victimization. Interventions targeting psychological distress, particularly in samples at risk for child maltreatment, may reduce the risk of dating violence victimization.

Pupil Response to Threat in Trauma-Exposed Individuals With or Without PTSD.

An infrequently studied and potentially promising physiological marker for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is pupil response. This study tested the hypothesis that pupil responses to threat would be significantly larger in trauma-exposed individuals with PTSD compared to those without PTSD. Eye-tracking technology was used to evaluate pupil response to threatening and neutral images. Recruited for participation were 40 trauma-exposed individuals; 40.0% (n = 16) met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Individuals with PTSD showed significantly more pupil dilation to threat-relevant stimuli compared to the neutral elements (Cohen's d = 0.76), and to trauma-exposed controls (Cohen's d = 0.75). Pupil dilation significantly accounted for 12% of variability in PTSD after time elapsed since most recent trauma, cumulative violence exposure, and trait anxiety were statistically adjusted. The final logistic regression model was associated with 85% of variability in PTSD status and correctly classified 93.8% of individuals with PTSD and 95.8% of those without. Pupil reactivity showed promise as a physiological marker for PTSD.

Animal models of post-traumatic stress disorder: face validity.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating condition that develops in a proportion of individuals following a traumatic event. Despite recent advances, ethical limitations associated with human research impede progress in understanding PTSD. Fortunately, much effort has focused on developing animal models to help study the pathophysiology of PTSD. Here, we provide an overview of animal PTSD models where a variety of stressors (physical, psychosocial, or psychogenic) are used to examine the long-term effects of severe trauma. We emphasize models involving predator threat because they reproduce human individual differences in susceptibility to, and in the long-term consequences of, psychological trauma.

A rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder reproduces the hippocampal deficits seen in the human syndrome.

Despite recent progress, the causes and pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remain poorly understood, partly because of ethical limitations inherent to human studies. One approach to circumvent this obstacle is to study PTSD in a valid animal model of the human syndrome. In one such model, extreme and long-lasting behavioral manifestations of anxiety develop in a subset of Lewis rats after exposure to an intense predatory threat that mimics the type of life-and-death situation known to precipitate PTSD in humans. This study aimed to assess whether the hippocampus-associated deficits observed in the human syndrome are reproduced in this rodent model. Prior to predatory threat, different groups of rats were each tested on one of three object recognition memory tasks that varied in the types of contextual clues (i.e., that require the hippocampus or not) the rats could use to identify novel items. After task completion, the rats were subjected to predatory threat and, one week later, tested on the elevated plus maze (EPM). Based on their exploratory behavior in the plus maze, rats were then classified as resilient or PTSD-like and their performance on the pre-threat object recognition tasks compared. The performance of PTSD-like rats was inferior to that of resilient rats but only when subjects relied on an allocentric frame of reference to identify novel items, a process thought to be critically dependent on the hippocampus. Therefore, these results suggest that even prior to trauma PTSD-like rats show a deficit in hippocampal-dependent functions, as reported in twin studies of human PTSD.