Molecular characterization of norovirus and sapovirus detected in animals and humans in Costa Rica: Zoo-anthropozoonotic potential of human norovirus GII.4.

Background: Noroviruses (NoV) and sapoviruses (SaV) are major causes of acute viral gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, as well as gastrointestinal infections in animals. However, it has not been determined whether these viruses are zoonotic pathogens. Aim: In this study, we investigated the presence of NoV and SaV in stool samples from dogs, pigs, cows, and humans to determine some aspects of the molecular epidemiology and the genetic relationship of several strains present in these species. Methods: Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of NoV and SaV strains present in stool samples from humans and dogs with diarrhea, pigs, and cattle with and without diarrhea were carried out during fragmented periods from 2002 to 2012. Results: Of all samples analyzed, 11.6% (123/1,061) of the samples were positive for NoV and 0.88% (9/1,023) were positive for SaV. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed 16 human strains of NoV (HuNoV) belonging to HuNoV G?/GII.P2 (1), GII.4/GII.P4 (5), G?/GII.P4 (9), and GII.6/GII.P6 (1) and allowed us to verify and assign three strains of human SaV to genotypes GI.2 (1) and GII.5 (2). In dogs, eight strains of NoV [HuNoV G?/GII.P4 (4) and canine G?/GVI.P1 (4)] and two strains of canine SaV were determined. In pigs, six strains were assigned to HuNoV G?/GII.P4 and four strains to porcine SaV were assigned to genogroup GIII (2), GVIII (1), and GXI (1). In bovines, five strains were characterized as HuNoV G?/GII.P4. Conclusions: This study showed that NoV and SaV prototype strains have been present in humans and dogs in Costa Rica. Additionally, it revealed that the zoonotic potential of SaV is very limited, while the zoonotic implications for HuNoV GII.4 are stronger due to the simultaneous circulation of strains related to HuNoV GII.4 in four species, which suggests a zoo-anthropozoonosis.

[Emergence of CMY-2-type plasmid-mediated AmpC ß-lactamase in Shigella sonnei and Salmonella spp. in Costa Rica, 2003-2015]. / Emergencia de ß-lactamasa AmpC plasmídica del grupo CMY-2 en Shigella sonnei y Salmonella spp. en Costa Rica, 2003-2015.

Plasmid-mediated AmpC are enzymes belonging to the group of ß-lactamases and encoded by bla AmpC genes. Of these enzymes, those known as type CMY-2 are the most frequently reported worldwide. Detection of enterobacteria that produce CMY-2-type plasmid-mediated AmpC is clinically important since the use of ß-lactam antibiotics can result in treatment failure. It is also important from a public health standpoint owing to the capacity for conjugative plasmid transfer to other enterobacteria, both within the community and in nosocomial environments. Thus, bacteria of this kind are considered to have clear epidemic potential. To investigate the circulation of this resistance mechanism among Salmonella and Shigella isolates in Costa Rica, from January 2003 to May 2015 we carried out a retrospective review of the data contained in the laboratory surveillance databases of the National Reference Bacteriology Center (CNRB) of the Costa Rican Nutrition and Health Research Institute (Inciensa). Over this period, 4363 Shigella isolates and 1785 Salmonella isolates were examined. Among them, 15 Shigella sonnei isolates and nine Salmonella isolates (four from human clinical specimens and five of avian origin) displayed a phenotype suspected of carrying plasmid-mediated AmpC. Polymerase chain reaction confirmed that all these isolates belong to type CMY-2. In light of these results, we recommend that the microbiology laboratories in the national network continue to conduct surveillance and confirm any suspicious isolates using phenotypic and molecular methods. This is particularly relevant when dealing with bacterial isolates from extraintestinal infections so as to prevent treatment failure.

Emergencia de β-lactamasa AmpC plasmídica del grupo CMY-2 en Shigella sonnei y Salmonella spp. en Costa Rica, 2003-2015 / Emergence of CMY-2-type plasmid-mediated AmpC β-lactamase in Shigella sonnei and Salmonella spp. in Costa Rica, 2003–2015

Las AmpC plasmídicas son enzimas del grupo de las β-lactamasas, codificadas por genes blaAmpC. Entre ellas, las del tipo CMY-2 son las que se reportan con mayor frecuencia a nivel mundial. La detección de enterobacterias productoras de AmpC plasmídicas CMY-2 es de importancia clínica, ya que pueden conducir a fracasos terapéuticos al emplear antibióticos b-lactámicos. Además, tienen importancia para la salud pública por su capacidad de transferirse por conjugación a otras enterobacterias, tanto en la comunidad como en ambiente nosocomial, por lo que se considera que tienen un claro potencial epidémico. Con el fin de conocer la circulación de este mecanismo de resistencia entre aislamientos de Salmonella y Shigella en Costa Rica, se realizó un análisis retrospectivo de la información contenida en las bases de datos de vigilancia de laboratorio del Centro Nacional de Referencia de Bacteriología (CNRB) del Instituto Costarricense de Investigación y Enseñanza en Nutrición y Salud (Inciensa), entre enero de 2003 y mayo de 2015. En dicho período se analizaron 4 363 aislamientos de Shigella y 1 785 aislamientos de Salmonella. Entre ellos se detectaron 15 aislamientos de Shigella sonnei y nueve de Salmonella (cuatro de origen clínico humano y cinco de origen aviar) con fenotipo sospechoso de portar AmpC plasmídica, todos los cuales se confirmaron pertenecientes al tipo CMY-2 mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa. Considerando estos resultados, se recomienda a los laboratorios de microbiología de la Red Nacional mantener la vigilancia y realizar la confirmación correspondiente de cualquier aislamiento sospechoso por métodos fenotípicos y moleculares. Lo anterior es especialmente importante en bacterias aisladas de infecciones extraintestinales, para evitar fallas en el tratamiento.

Plasmid-mediated AmpC are enzymes belonging to the group of β-lactamases and encoded by blaAmpC genes. Of these enzymes, those known as type CMY-2 are the most frequently reported worldwide. Detection of enterobacteria that produce CMY-2-type plasmid-mediated AmpC is clinically important since the use of β-lactam antibiotics can result in treatment failure. It is also important from a public health standpoint owing to the capacity for conjugative plasmid transfer to other enterobacteria, both within the community and in nosocomial environments. Thus, bacteria of this kind are considered to have clear epidemic potential. To investigate the circulation of this resistance mechanism among Salmonella and Shigella isolates in Costa Rica, from January 2003 to May 2015 we carried out a retrospective review of the data contained in the laboratory surveillance databases of the National Reference Bacteriology Center (CNRB) of the Costa Rican Nutrition and Health Research Institute (Inciensa). Over this period, 4363 Shigella isolates and 1785 Salmonella isolates were examined. Among them, 15 Shigella sonnei isolates and nine Salmonella isolates (four from human clinical specimens and five of avian origin) displayed a phenotype suspected of carrying plasmid-mediated AmpC. Polymerase chain reaction confirmed that all these isolates belong to type CMY-2. In light of these results, we recommend that the microbiology laboratories in the national network continue to conduct surveillance and confirm any suspicious isolates using phenotypic and molecular methods. This is particularly relevant when dealing with bacterial isolates from extraintestinal infections so as to prevent treatment failure.