Engineering the Staple Oil Crop Brassica napus Enriched with α-Linolenic Acid Using the Perilla FAD2-FAD3 Fusion Gene.

Modern people generally suffer from α-linolenic acid (ALA) deficiency, since most staple food oils are low in ALA content. Thus, the enhancement of ALA in staple oil crops is of importance. In this study, the FAD2 and FAD3 coding regions from the ALA-king species Perilla frutescens were fused using a newly designed double linker LP4-2A, driven by a seed-specific promoter PNAP, and engineered into a rapeseed elite cultivar ZS10 with canola quality background. The mean ALA content in the seed oil of PNAP:PfFAD2-PfFAD3 (N23) T5 lines was 3.34-fold that of the control (32.08 vs 9.59%), with the best line being up to 37.47%. There are no significant side effects of the engineered constructs on the background traits including oil content. In fatty acid biosynthesis pathways, the expression levels of structural genes as well as regulatory genes were significantly upregulated in N23 lines. On the other hand, the expression levels of genes encoding the positive regulators of flavonoid-proanthocyanidin biosynthesis but negative regulators of oil accumulation were significantly downregulated. Surprisingly, the ALA level in PfFAD2-PfFAD3 transgenic rapeseed lines driven by the constitutive promoter PD35S was not increased or even showed a slight decrease due to the lower level of foreign gene expression and downregulation of the endogenous orthologous genes BnFAD2 and BnFAD3.

Whole-genome resequencing reveals Brassica napus origin and genetic loci involved in its improvement.

Brassica napus (2n = 4x = 38, AACC) is an important allopolyploid crop derived from interspecific crosses between Brassica rapa (2n = 2x = 20, AA) and Brassica oleracea (2n = 2x = 18, CC). However, no truly wild B. napus populations are known; its origin and improvement processes remain unclear. Here, we resequence 588 B. napus accessions. We uncover that the A subgenome may evolve from the ancestor of European turnip and the C subgenome may evolve from the common ancestor of kohlrabi, cauliflower, broccoli, and Chinese kale. Additionally, winter oilseed may be the original form of B. napus. Subgenome-specific selection of defense-response genes has contributed to environmental adaptation after formation of the species, whereas asymmetrical subgenomic selection has led to ecotype change. By integrating genome-wide association studies, selection signals, and transcriptome analyses, we identify genes associated with improved stress tolerance, oil content, seed quality, and ecotype improvement. They are candidates for further functional characterization and genetic improvement of B. napus.

Identification and characterization of a novel delta6-fatty acid desaturase gene from Rhizopus nigricans.

Fatty acid composition of fungi is analysed through the gas chromatography technique. With specific activity a novel enzyme Delta6-fatty acid desaturase was screened and isolated from Rhizopus nigricans. In this study R. nigricans was identified as a fungal species that produced plentiful gamma-linolenic acid. A 1,475 bp full-length cDNA, designated as RnD6D here, with high homology to fungal Delta6-fatty acid desaturase genes was isolated from R. nigricans using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and rapid amplification of cDNA ends methods. Sequence analysis indicated that this cDNA sequence had an open reading frame of 1,380 bp encoding a deduced polypeptide of 459 amino acids. Bioinformatics analysis characterized the putative RnD6D protein as a typical membrane-bound desaturase, including three conserved histidine-rich motifs, hydropathy profile and a cytochrome b5-like domain in the N-terminus. The corresponding genomic sequence of RnD6D was 1,689 bp with 4 introns, which was at least one intron more than other fungal Delta6-fatty acid desaturase genes. To elucidate the function of this novel putative desaturase, the coding sequence was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain INVScl. A novel peak corresponding to gamma-linolenic acid methyl ester standards was detected with the same retention time, which was absent in the cell transformed with empty vector. The result demonstrated that the coding produced Delta6-fatty acid desaturase activity of RnD6D which led to the accumulation of gamma-linolenic acid. The functionally active RnD6D gene cloned here defined a novel Delta6-fatty acid desaturase from R. nigricans.

TRANSPARENT TESTA 12 genes from Brassica napus and parental species: cloning, evolution, and differential involvement in yellow seed trait.

Molecular dissection of the Brassica yellow seed trait has been the subject of intense investigation. Arabidopsis thaliana TRANSPARENT TESTA 12 (AtTT12) encodes a multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) transporter involved in seed coat pigmentation. Two, one, and one full-length TT12 genes were isolated from B. napus, B. oleracea, and B. rapa, respectively, and Southern hybridization confirmed these gene numbers, implying loss of some of the triplicated TT12 genes in Brassica. BnTT12-1, BnTT12-2, BoTT12, and BrTT12 are 2,714, 3,062, 4,760, and 2,716 bp, with the longest mRNAs of 1,749, 1,711, 1,739, and 1,752 bp, respectively. All genes contained alternative transcriptional start and polyadenylation sites. BrTT12 and BoTT12 are the progenitors of BnTT12-1 and BnTT12-2, respectively, validating B. napus as an amphidiploid. All Brassica TT12 proteins displayed high levels of identity (>99%) to each other and to AtTT12 (>92%). Brassica TT12 genes resembled AtTT12 in such basic features as MatE/NorM CDs, subcellular localization, transmembrane helices, and phosphorylation sites. Plant TT12 orthologs differ from other MATE proteins by two specific motifs. Like AtTT12, all Brassica TT12 genes are most highly expressed in developing seeds. However, a range of organ specificity was observed with BnTT12 genes being less organ-specific. TT12 expression is absent in B. rapa yellow-seeded line 06K124, but not downregulated in B. oleracea yellow-seeded line 06K165. In B. napus yellow-seeded line L2, BnTT12-2 expression is absent, whereas BnTT12-1 is expressed normally. Among Brassica species, TT12 genes are differentially related to the yellow seed trait. The molecular basis for the yellow seed trait, in Brassica, and the theoretical and practical implications of the highly variable intron 1 of these TT12 genes are discussed.

Cloning and characterization of phosphorus starvation inducible Brassica napus PURPLE ACID PHOSPHATASE 12 gene family, and imprinting of a recently evolved MITE-minisatellite twin structure.

Purple acid phosphatase (PAP) is important for phosphorus assimilation and in planta redistribution. In this study, seven Brassica napus PAP12 (BnPAP12) genes orthologous to Arabidopsis thaliana PAP12 (AtPAP12) are isolated and characterized. NCBI BLASTs, multi-alignments, conserved domain prediction, and featured motif/residue characterization indicate that all BnPAP12 members encode dimeric high molecular weight plant PAPs. BnPAP12-1, BnPAP12-2, BnPAP12-3 and BnPAP12-7 (Group I) have six introns and encode 469-aa polypeptides structurally comparable to AtPAP12. BnPAP12-4 and BnPAP12-6 (Group II) have seven introns and encode 526-aa PAP12s. Encoding a 475-aa polypeptide, BnPAP12-5 (Group III) is evolved from a chimera of 5' part of Group I and 3' part of Group II. Sequence characterization and Southern detection suggest that there are about five BnPAP12 alleles. Homoeologous non-allelic fragment exchanges exist among BnPAP12 genes. BnPAP12-4 and BnPAP12-6 are imprinted with a Tourist-like miniature inverted-repeat transposable element (MITE) which is tightly associated with a novel minisatellite composed of four 36-bp tandem repeats. Existing solely in B. rapa/oleracea lineage, this recently evolved MITE-minisatellite twin structure does not impair transcription and coding capacity of the imprinted genes, and could be used to identify close relatives of B. rapa/oleracea lineage within Brassica. It is also useful for studying MITE activities especially possible involvement in minisatellite formation and gene structure evolution. BnPAP12-6 is silent in transcription. All other BnPAP12 genes basically imitate AtPAP12 in tissue specificity and Pi-starvation induced expression pattern, but divergence and complementation are distinct among them. Alternative polyadenylation and intron retention also exist in BnPAP12 mRNAs.

Localization of QTLs for seed color using recombinant inbred lines of Brassica napus in different environments.

Yellow seed is one of the most important traits of Brassica napus L. Efficient selection of the yellow-seed trait is one of the most important objectives in oilseed rape breeding. Two recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations (RIL-1 and RIL-2) were analyzed for 2 years at 2 locations. Four hundred and twenty SSR, RAPD, and SRAP marker loci covering 1744 cM were mapped in 26 linkage groups of RIL-1, while 265 loci covering 1135 cM were mapped in 20 linkage groups of RIL-2. A total of 19 QTLs were detected in the 2 populations. A major QTL was detected adjacent to the same marker (EM11ME20/200) in both maps in both years. This major QTL could explain 53.71%, 39.34%, 42.42%, 30.18%, 24.86%, and 15.08% of phenotypic variation in 6 combinations (location x year x population). BLASTn analysis of the sequences of the markers flanking the major QTL revealed that the homologous region corresponding to this major QTL was anchored between genes At5g44440 and At5g49640 of Arabidopsis thaliana chromosome 5 (At C5). Based on comparative genomic analysis, the bifunctional gene TT10 is nearest to the homologue of EM11ME20/200 on At C5 and can be considered an important candidate gene for the major QTL identified here. Besides providing an effective strategy for marker-assisted selection of the yellow-seed trait in B. napus, our results also provide important clues for cloning of the candidate gene corresponding to this major QTL.

[Cloning and expression of a delta6-fatty acid desaturase gene from Rhizopus stolonifer in Saccharomyces cervisiae].

Fatty acid composition of fungi is analysed through the gas chromatography( GC) technique. With specific activity a novel enzyme delta6-fatty acid desaturase was screened and isolated from Rhizopus stolonifer. In this study R. stolonifer was identified as a fungal species that produced plentiful gamma-linolenic acid. A 1475bp full-length cDNA, designated as RnD6D here, with high homology to fungal delta6-fatty acid desaturase genes was isolated from R. stolonifer using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and rapid amplification of cDNA ends methods. Sequence analysis indicated that this cDNA sequence had an open reading frame of 1380bp encoding a deduced polypeptide of 459 amino acids. Bioinformatics analysis characterized the putative RnD6D protein as a typical membrane-bound desaturase, including three conserved histidine-rich motifs, hydropathy profile and a cytochrome b5-like domain in the N-terminus. To elucidate the function of this novel putative desaturase, the coding sequence was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain INVScl. A novel peak corresponding to gamma-linolenic acid(GLA) methyl ester standards was detected with the same retention time, which was absent in the cell transformed with empty vector. The percentage of this new GLA was 12.25% of total fatty acids. The result demonstrated that the coding produced delta6-fatty acid desaturase activity of RnD6D which led to the accumulation of gamma-linolenic acid.

Molecular cloning of two genes encoding cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) from oilseed rape (Brassica napus).

Cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) is a key enzyme of phenylpropanoid pathway, which synthesizes numerous secondary metabolites to participate in development and adaption. Two C4H isoforms, the 2192-bp BnC4H-1 and 2108-bp BnC4H-2, were cloned from oilseed rape (Brassica napus). They both have two introns and a 1518-bp open reading frame encoding a 505-amino-acid polypeptide. BnC4H-1 is 57.73 kDa with an isoelectric point of 9.11, while 57.75 kDa and 9.13 for BnC4H-2. They share only 80.6% identities on nucleotide level but 96.6% identities and 98.4% positives on protein level. Showing highest homologies to Arabidopsis thaliana C4H, they possess a conserved p450 domain and all P450-featured motifs, and are identical to typical C4Hs at substrate-recognition sites and active site residues. They are most probably associated with endoplasmic reticulum by one or both of the N- and C-terminal transmembrane helices. Phosphorylation may be a necessary post-translational modification. Their secondary structures are dominated by alpha helices and random coils. Most helices locate in the central region, while extended strands mainly distribute before and after this region. Southern blot indicated about 9 or more C4H paralogs in B. napus. In hypocotyl, cotyledon, stem, flower, bud, young- and middle-stage seed, they are co-dominantly expressed. In root and old seed, BnC4H-2 is dominant over BnC4H-1, with a reverse trend in leaf and pericarp. Paralogous C4H numbers in Brassicaceae genomes and possible roles of conserved motifs in 5' UTR and the 2nd intron are discussed.

Molecular cloning of Brassica napus TRANSPARENT TESTA 2 gene family encoding potential MYB regulatory proteins of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis.

Three members of Brassica napus TRANSPARENT TESTA 2 (BnTT2) gene family encoding potential R2R3-MYB regulatory proteins of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis were isolated. BnTT2-1, BnTT2-2, and BnTT2-3 are 1102 bp with two introns, and have a 938-bp full-length cDNA with a 260 amino acid open reading frame. They share 98.2-99.3% nucleotide and 96.5-98.5% amino acid identities to each other, and are orthologous to Arabidopsis thaliana TT2 (AtTT2) with 74.1-74.8% nucleotide and 71.1-71.8% amino acid identities. An mRNA type of BnTT2-2 was found to contain unspliced intron 2 and encode a premature protein. They all have an alternative polyadenylation site. BnTT2-1 and BnTT2-3 also have an alternative transcription initiation site. Aligned with AtTT2, their 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) are astonishingly conserved, and two conserved regions were also found in their 3' UTRs. Oligonucleotide deletion leads to double-start codons of them. Resembling AtTT2, BnTT2 proteins are nuclear-located R2R3-MYB proteins containing predicted DNA-binding sites, bHLH interaction residues, and transcription activation domains. Southern blot indicated that there might be three BnTT2 members in B. napus, lower than triplication-based prediction. Semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) revealed that the expression of BnTT2-2 is mostly like AtTT2 with intensive expression in young seeds, but it is also expressed in root in which AtTT2 has no expression. BnTT2-1 shows lower tissue specificity and transcription levels, whereas BnTT2-3 is the lowest. Comparative cloning and RT-PCR indicated that seed color near-isogenic lines L1 and L2 have equivalent BnTT2 genes, and the yellow seed color in L2 might be caused by locus/loci other than BnTT2. Our results lay the basis for further investigating the regulatory mechanism of BnTT2 genes in flavonoid pathway and for transgenic creation of novel yellow-seeded B. napus stocks.

Cloning and molecular characterization of a functional flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase gene from Brassica napus.

A flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) gene, denoted BnF3'H-1, was cloned from oilseed rape (Brassica napus). The gene of 3038 base pairs (bp) contains 3 introns. The complementary DNA (cDNA) consists of 1820bp and has an open reading frame of 1536bp encoding a polypeptide of 511 amino acids with a molecular weight of 56.62kDa and an isoelectric point of 7.08. BnF3'H-1 shows high homology to known F3'H genes, especially F3'H from Arabidopsis thaliana. Untranslated regions (UTRs) may play important roles in regulating the expression of BnF3'H-1. Besides containing a Kozak sequence, the first 77-bp region is C-rich but G-poor, and the 26-bp 5'-UTR contains 3 sites of ACCACT-like sequences. Alternative polyadenylation in the 3'-UTR is adopted by this gene to generate heterogeneous transcripts. Conserved domain search and motif characterization identified BnF3'H-1 as a cytochrome P450. All F3'H-featured motifs, VVVAAS, GGEK and VDVKG, are unchanged in BnF3'H-1. The N-terminal signal peptide/anchor and 3 transmembrane helices were predicted in BnF3'H-1, and its subcellular localization is most probably at the endoplasmic reticulum. Since 16 phosphorylation sites could be predicted, phosphorylation may be a necessary post-translational modification of BnF3'H-1. The secondary structure is dominated by alpha-helices and random coils. Most helices are located in the middle region, while extended strands mainly intersperse in terminal regions. DNA gel blot analysis indicated that 2 different F3'H genes might exist in B. napus. Semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and RNA gel blot analysis showed that flowers have the highest F3'H expression, followed by pericarp and seed, and lower levels in some other organs. This species-featured expression pattern is in obedience to multiple functional roles that F3'H gene(s) play(s) in various organs of B. napus. The BnF3'H-1 coding region was expressed in Escherichia coli, and enzyme activity of the His-tagged protein was demonstrated by monitoring the conversion of the substrate naringenin using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), suggesting that BnF3'H-1 is catalytically functional. RT-PCR analysis suggests that transcription level of the F3'H gene(s) is not the reason for the different seed colorations found in near-isogenic lines (black-seeded L1 and yellow-seeded L2) of B. napus.