Profibrotic Infrapatellar Fat Pad Remodeling Without M1 Macrophage Polarization Precedes Knee Osteoarthritis in Mice With Diet-Induced Obesity.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that high-fat (HF) diet-induced obesity increases proinflammatory cytokine expression, macrophage infiltration, and M1 polarization in the infrapatellar fat pad (IFP) prior to knee cartilage degeneration. METHODS: We characterized the effect of HF feeding on knee OA pathology, body adiposity, and glucose intolerance in male C57BL/6J mice and identified a diet duration that induces metabolic dysfunction prior to cartilage degeneration. Magnetic resonance imaging and histomorphology were used to quantify changes in the epididymal, subcutaneous, and infrapatellar fat pads and in adipocyte sizes. Finally, we used targeted gene expression and protein arrays, immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry to quantify differences in fat pad markers of inflammation and immune cell populations. RESULTS: Twenty weeks of feeding with an HF diet induced marked obesity, glucose intolerance, and early osteoarthritis (OA), including osteophytes and cartilage tidemark duplication. This duration of HF feeding increased the IFP volume. However, it did not increase IFP inflammation, macrophage infiltration, or M1 macrophage polarization as observed in epididymal fat. Furthermore, leptin protein levels were reduced. This protection from obesity-induced inflammation corresponded to increased IFP fibrosis and the absence of adipocyte hypertrophy. CONCLUSION: The IFP does not recapitulate classic abdominal adipose tissue inflammation during the early stages of knee OA in an HF diet-induced model of obesity. Consequently, these findings do not support the hypothesis that IFP inflammation is an initiating factor of obesity-induced knee OA. Furthermore, the profibrotic and antihypertrophic responses of IFP adipocytes to HF feeding suggest that intraarticular adipocytes are subject to distinct spatiotemporal structural and metabolic regulation among fat pads.

Beta-secretase inhibitor GRL-8234 rescues age-related cognitive decline in APP transgenic mice.

Alzheimer disease is intimately linked to an excess amount of amyloid-ß (Aß) in the brain. Thus, therapeutic inhibition of Aß production is an attractive clinical approach to treat this disease. Here we provide the first direct experimental evidence that the treatment of Tg2576 transgenic mice with an inhibitor of ß-secretase, GRL-8234, rescues the age-related cognitive decline. We demonstrated that the injected GRL-8234 effectively enters the brain and rapidly decreases soluble Aß in the brain of Tg2576 mice. The rescue of cognition, which was observed only after long-term inhibitor treatment ranging from 5 to 7.5 mo, was associated with a decrease of brain amyloid-ß plaque load. We also found no accumulation of amyloid-ß precursor protein after several months of inhibitor treatment. These observations substantiate the idea that Aß accumulation plays a major role in the cognitive decline of Tg2576 mice and support the concept of Aß reduction therapy as a treatment of AD.

Potent memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) inhibitors: design, synthesis, protein-ligand X-ray structure, and in vivo evaluation.

Structure-based design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a series of peptidomimetic beta-secretase inhibitors incorporating hydroxyethylamine isosteres are described. We have identified inhibitor 24 which has shown exceedingly potent activity in memapsin 2 enzyme inhibitory (K(i) 1.8 nM) and cellular (IC(50)=1 nM in Chinese hamster ovary cells) assays. Inhibitor 24 has also shown very impressive in vivo properties (up to 65% reduction of plasma A beta) in transgenic mice. The X-ray structure of protein-ligand complex of memapsin 2 revealed critical interactions in the memapsin 2 active site.

Amyloid-beta reduction by memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) immunization.

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase, BACE1) is the protease that initiates cleavage of beta-amyloid precursor protein leading to the production of amyloid-beta (Abeta) and the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Reducing Abeta by targeting memapsin 2 is a major strategy in developing new AD therapy. Here, in a proof-of-concept study, we show that immunization of transgenic AD mice (Tg2576) with memapsin 2 resulted in Abeta reduction and cognitive improvement. To study the basis of this therapy, we demonstrated that anti-memapsin 2 (anti-M2) antibodies were rapidly internalized and reduced Abeta production in cultured cells. These antibodies also effectively crossed the blood-brain barrier to reach the brain. Two- and 10-month Tg2576 mice were immunized and monitored over 10 and 6 months, respectively. We observed a significant decrease of plasma and brain Abeta40 and Abeta42 (approximately 35%) in the immunized mice as compared to controls. Immunized mice also showed better cognitive performance than controls in both cohorts. Brain histological analyses found no evidence of T cell/microglia/astrocyte activation in the immunized mice, suggesting the absence of inflammatory responses. These results suggest that memapsin 2 immunization in Tg2576 was effective in reducing Abeta production and improving cognitive function and that the current approach warrants further investigation as a therapy for AD.

Design, synthesis, and X-ray structure of potent memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) inhibitors with isophthalamide derivatives as the P2-P3-ligands.

Structure-based design and synthesis of a number of potent and selective memapsin 2 inhibitors are described. These inhibitors were designed based upon the X-ray structure of memapsin 2-bound inhibitor 3 that incorporates methylsulfonyl alanine as the P2-ligand and a substituted pyrazole as the P3-ligand. Of particular importance, we examined the ability of the substituted isophthalic acid amide derivative to mimic the key interactions in the S2-S3 regions of the enzyme active sites of 3-bound memapsin 2. We investigated various substituted phenylethyl, alpha-methylbenzyl, and oxazolylmethyl groups as the P3-ligands. A number of inhibitors exhibited very potent inhibitory activity against mempasin 2 and good selectivity against memapsin 1. Inhibitor 5d has shown low nanomolar enzyme inhibitory potency (Ki=1.1 nM) and very good cellular inhibitory activity (IC50=39 nM). Furthermore, in a preliminary study, inhibitor 5d has shown 30% reduction of Abeta40 production in transgenic mice after a single intraperitoneal administration (8 mg/kg). A protein-ligand X-ray crystal structure of 5d-bound memapsin 2 provided vital molecular insight that can serve as an important guide to further design of novel inhibitors.

GGA proteins mediate the recycling pathway of memapsin 2 (BACE).

Memapsin 2 (BACE, beta-secretase) is a membrane-associated aspartic protease that initiates the hydrolysis of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the production of amyloid-beta (A beta) and the progression of Alzheimer disease. Both memapsin 2 and APP are transported from the cell surface to endosomes where APP is cleaved by memapsin 2. We described previously that the cytosolic domain of memapsin 2 contains an acid cluster-dileucine motif (ACDL) that binds the VHS (Vps-27, Hrs, and STAM) domain of Golgi-localized gamma-ear-containing ARF-binding (GGA) proteins (He, X., Zhu, G., Koelsch, G., Rodgers, K. K., Zhang, X. C., and Tang, J. (2003) Biochemistry 42, 12174-12180). Here we report that GGA proteins colocalize in the trans-Golgi network and endosomes with memapsin 2 and a memapsin 2 chimera containing a cytosolic domain of a mannose-6-phosphate receptor. Depleting cellular GGA proteins with RNA interference or mutation of serine 498 to stop the phosphorylation of ACDL resulted in the accumulation of memapsin 2 in early endosomes. A similar change of memapsin 2 localization also was observed when a retromer subunit, VPS26, was depleted. These observations suggest that GGA proteins function with the phosphorylated ACDL in the memapsin 2-recycling pathway from endosomes to trans-Golgi on the way back to the cell surface.

The effects of dietary vitamin E and selenium deficiencies on plasma thyroid and thymic hormone concentrations in the chicken.

Beginning at hatching, male Cornell K strain single comb white leghorn chickens were fed a basal diet, with or without vitamin E (100 IU/kg) and/or selenium (Se, 0.2 ppm). After 3 weeks of treatment, animals fed either the Se-deficient or basal diet had significantly reduced plasma Se-dependent glutathione peroxidase activities when compared to those fed a vitamin E and Se-supplemented diet. Similarly, animals fed the vitamin E-deficient or basal diet had significantly reduced plasma alpha-tocopherol levels. The effect of these treatments on plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones (T(3)/T(4)), growth hormone (GH), and thymic hormone (thymulin) was determined using radioimmunoassay and ELISA. A deficiency in Se, but not in vitamin E, resulted in an increase in plasma T(4) concentrations while plasma T(3) concentrations were decreased. Plasma GH levels showed some fluctuation as a result of the dietary treatments but there was no significant correlation between plasma GH levels and any of the other variables. A significant decrease in plasma thymulin levels was observed in Se-deficient birds compared to those receiving adequate Se in the diet. A vitamin E deficiency had no measurable effect on plasma thymulin levels. From these studies, we conclude that plasma thymulin concentrations directly correlate with plasma T(3) concentrations which are negatively affected by a Se deficiency.

Structural features of human memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) and their biological and pathological implications.

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) is the membrane-anchored aspartic protease that initiates the cleavage of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the production of amyloid-beta (Abeta), a major factor in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Since memapsin 2 is a major target for the development of inhibitor drugs for AD, it has been intensively studied during the past five years. Here we discuss the structural features of the catalytic/specificity apparatus, transmembrane domain, cytosolic domain and the implications of these features in the physiological and pathological roles of this protease.

Internalization of exogenously added memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) ectodomain by cells is mediated by amyloid precursor protein.

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) is the protease that initiates cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the production of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide and the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Both APP and memapsin 2 are Type I transmembrane proteins and are endocytosed into endosomes where APP is cleaved by memapsin 2. Separate endocytic signals are located in the cytosolic domains of these proteins. We demonstrate here that the addition of the ectodomain of memapsin 2 (M2(ED)) to cells transfected with native APP or APP Swedish mutant (APPsw) resulted in the internalization of M2(ED) into endosomes with increased Abeta production. These effects were reduced by treatment with glycosylphosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. The nontransfected parental cells had little internalization of M2(ED). The internalization of M2(ED) was dependent on the endocytosis signal in APP, because the expression of a mutant APP that lacks its endocytosis signal failed to support M2(ED) internalization. These results suggest that exogenously added M2(ED) interacts with the ectodomain of APP on the cell surface leading to the internalization of M2(ED), supported by fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments. The interactions between the two proteins is not due to the binding of substrate APPsw to the active site of memapsin 2, because neither a potent active site binding inhibitor of memapsin 2 nor an antibody directed to the beta-secretase site of APPsw had an effect on the uptake of M2(ED). In addition, full-length memapsin 2 and APP, immunoprecipitated together from cell lysates, suggested that the interaction of these two proteins is part of the native cellular processes.

In vivo inhibition of Abeta production by memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) inhibitors.

We have previously reported structure-based design of memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) inhibitors with high potency. Here we show that two such inhibitors covalently linked to a "carrier peptide" penetrated the plasma membrane in cultured cells and inhibited the production of beta-amyloid (Abeta). Intraperitoneal injection of the conjugated inhibitors in transgenic Alzheimer's mice (Tg2576) resulted in a significant decrease of Abeta level in the plasma and brain. These observations verified that memapsin 2 is a therapeutic target for Abeta reduction and also establish that transgenic mice are suitable in vivo models for the study of memapsin 2 inhibition.

Study of memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) and strategy of inhibitor design.

The discovery that beta-secretase is a membrane-anchored aspartic protease memapsin 2 has stimulated much interest in the design and testing of its inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. This article discusses the strategy for the development of such inhibitor drugs. Enzymology and structural determination tools have permitted the design of memapsin 2 inhibitors with high potency and in a size range possible for penetration of the blood-brain barrier. Transgenic Alzheimer's mice have been used to show that when memapsin 2 inhibitors are transported to the brain, they effectively reduce the production of amyloid beta. Although development of a clinical candidate of memapsin 2 inhibitor drug remains a very challenging undertaking, the progress so far lends some optimism for future prospects.

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) cytosolic domain binds to the VHS domains of GGA1 and GGA2: implications on the endocytosis mechanism of memapsin 2.

Memapsin 2, or beta-secretase, is a membrane-anchored aspartic protease that initiates the cleavage of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the production of beta-amyloid peptide in the brain and the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Memapsin 2 and APP are both endocytosed into endosomes for cleavage. Here we show that the cytosolic domain of memapsin 2, but not that of memapsin 1, binds the VHS domains of GGA1 and GGA2. Gel-immobilized VHS domains of GGA1 and GGA2 also bound to full-length memapsin 2 from cell mammalian lysates. Mutagenesis studies established that Asp(496), Leu(499) and Leu(500) were essential for the binding. The spacing of these three residues in memapsin 2 is identical to those in the cytosolic domains of mannose-6-phosphate receptors, sortilin and low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 3. These observations suggest that the endocytosis and intracellular transport of memapsin 2, mediated by its cytosolic domain, may involve the binding of GGA1 and GGA2.