International ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia

The most recent European guidelines and task force reports on hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) were published almost 10 years ago. Since then, further randomised clinical trials of HAP and VAP have been conducted and new information has become available. Studies of epidemiology, diagnosis, empiric treatment, response to treatment, new antibiotics or new forms of antibiotic administration and disease prevention have changed old paradigms. In addition, important differences between approaches in Europe and the USA have become apparent.The European Respiratory Society launched a project to develop new international guidelines for HAP and VAP. Other European societies, including the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine and the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, were invited to participate and appointed their representatives. The Latin American Thoracic Association was also invited.A total of 15 experts and two methodologists made up the panel. Three experts from the USA were also invited (Michael S. Niederman, Marin Kollef and Richard Wunderink).Applying the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) methodology, the panel selected seven PICO (population-intervention-comparison-outcome) questions that generated a series of recommendations for HAP/VAP diagnosis, treatment and prevention.(AU)

Use of nebulized antimicrobials for the treatment of respiratory infections in invasively mechanically ventilated adults: a position paper from the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

With an established role in cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis, nebulized antibiotics are increasingly being used to treat respiratory infections in critically ill invasively mechanically ventilated adult patients. Although there is limited evidence describing their efficacy and safety, in an era when there is a need for new strategies to enhance antibiotic effectiveness because of a shortage of new agents and increases in antibiotic resistance, the potential of nebulization of antibiotics to optimize therapy is considered of high interest, particularly in patients infected with multidrug-resistant pathogens. This Position Paper of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases provides recommendations based on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology regarding the use of nebulized antibiotics in invasively mechanically ventilated adults, based on a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature (last search July 2016). Overall, the panel recommends avoiding the use of nebulized antibiotics in clinical practice, due to a weak level of evidence of their efficacy and the high potential for underestimated risks of adverse events (particularly, respiratory complications). Higher-quality evidence is urgently needed to inform clinical practice. Priorities of future research are detailed in the second part of the Position Paper as guidance for researchers in this field. In particular, the panel identified an urgent need for randomized clinical trials of nebulized antibiotic therapy as part of a substitution approach to treatment of pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant pathogens.

Key considerations on nebulization of antimicrobial agents to mechanically ventilated patients.

Nebulized antibiotics have an established role in patients with cystic fibrosis or bronchiectasis. Their potential benefit to treat respiratory infections in mechanically ventilated patients is receiving increasing interest. In this consensus statement of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, the body of evidence of the therapeutic utility of aerosolized antibiotics in mechanically ventilated patients was reviewed and resulted in the following recommendations: Vibrating-mesh nebulizers should be preferred to jet or ultrasonic nebulizers. To decrease turbulence and limit circuit and tracheobronchial deposition, we recommend: (a) the use of specifically designed respiratory circuits avoiding sharp angles and characterized by smooth inner surfaces, (b) the use of specific ventilator settings during nebulization including use of a volume controlled mode using constant inspiratory flow, tidal volume 8 mL/kg, respiratory frequency 12 to 15 bpm, inspiratory:expiratory ratio 50%, inspiratory pause 20% and positive end-expiratory pressure 5 to 10 cm H2O and (c) the administration of a short-acting sedative agent if coordination between the patient and the ventilator is not obtained, to avoid patient's flow triggering and episodes of peak decelerating inspiratory flow. A filter should be inserted on the expiratory limb to protect the ventilator flow device and changed between each nebulization to avoid expiratory flow obstruction. A heat and moisture exchanger and/or conventional heated humidifier should be stopped during the nebulization period to avoid a massive loss of aerosolized particles through trapping and condensation. If these technical requirements are not followed, there is a high risk of treatment failure and adverse events in mechanically ventilated patients receiving nebulized antibiotics for pneumonia.

Nosocomial pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with linezolid or vancomycin: A secondary economic analysis of resource use from a Spanish perspective / Neumonía nosocomial causada por Staphylococcus aureusresistente a meticilina tratada con linezolid o vancomicina: análisis económico secundario del uso de recursos sanitarios desde una perspectiva Española

OBJECTIVES: Adopting a unique Spanish perspective, this study aims to assess healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) and the costs of treating nosocomial pneumonia (NP) produced by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitalized adults using linezolid or vancomycin. An evaluation is also made of the renal failure rate and related economic outcomes between study groups. DESIGN: An economic post hoc evaluation of a randomized, double-blind, multicenter phase 4 study was carried out. Scope: Nosocomial pneumonia due to MRSA in hospitalized adults. PARTICIPANTS: The modified intent to treat (mITT) population comprised 224 linezolid- and 224 vancomycin-treated patients. INTERVENTIONS: Costs and HCRU were evaluated between patients administered either linezolid or vancomycin, and between patients who developed renal failure and those who did not. Primary endpoints: Analysis of HCRU outcomes and costs. RESULTS: Total costs were similar between the linezolid- (€17,782 ± €9,615) and vancomycin-treated patients (€17,423 ± €9,460) (P = .69). The renal failure rate was significantly lower in the linezolid-treated patients (4% vs. 15%; P<.001). The total costs tended to be higher in patients who developed renal failure (€19,626 ± €10,840 vs. €17,388 ± €9,369; P = .14). Among the patients who developed renal failure, HCRU (days on mechanical ventilation: 13.2 ± 10.7 vs. 7.6 ± 3.6 days; P = .21; ICU stay: 14.4 ± 10.5 vs. 9.9 ± 6.6 days; P = .30; hospital stay: 19.5 ± 9.5 vs. 16.1 ± 11.0 days; P = .26) and cost (€17,219 ± €8,792 vs. €20,263 ± €11,350; P = .51) tended to be lower in the linezolid- vs. vancomycin-treated patients. There were no statistically significant differences in costs per patient-day between cohorts after correcting for mortality (€1000 vs. €1,010; P = .98). CONCLUSIONS: From a Spanish perspective, there were no statistically significant differences in total costs between the linezolid and vancomycin pneumonia cohorts. The drug cost corresponding to linezolid was partially offset by fewer renal failure adverse events

OBJETIVOS: Analizar la utilización de recursos sanitarios (URS) y los costes de la neumonía nosocomial por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina en adultos hospitalizados tratados con linezolid o vancomicina. También se evaluó el porcentaje de fallo renal entre dichos pacientes. DISEÑO: Análisis post-hoc de un ensayo clínico fase IV multicéntrico, aleatorizado, doble ciego. Ámbito: Pacientes adultos, hospitalizados con neumonía nosocomial por Staphylococcus aureusresistente a meticilina. PARTICIPANTES: Pacientes tratados con linezolid (224) o vancomicina (224). INTERVENCIONES: Desde la perspectiva española se compararon costes y URS entre pacientes tratados con linezolid o vancomicina y entre los que desarrollaron fallo renal y los que no. Principales variables de interés Análisis de costes y URS. RESULTADOS: Los costes totales fueron similares (p = 0,69) en los pacientes tratados con linezolid (17.782 ± 9.615€) o vancomicina (17.423 ± 9.460 €). La tasa de fallo renal fue significativamente menor en los tratados con linezolid (4 vs. 15%, p < 0,001). Los costes totales fueron mayores en aquellos que desarrollaron fallo renal (19.626 ± 10.840€ vs. 17.388 ± 9.369€, p = 0,14). La URS (días de ventilación mecánica: 13,2 ± 10,7 vs. 7,6 ± 3,6, p = 0,21; días en UCI: 14,4 ± 10,5 vs. 9,9 ± 6,6, p = 0,30; días de hospitalización: 19,5 ± 9,5 vs. 16,1 ± 11,0, p = 0,26) y los costes totales (17.219 ± 8.792€ vs. 20.263 ± 11.350€, p = 0,51) tendieron a ser inferiores en los pacientes tratados con linezolid que desarrollan fallo renal. Tras corregir el análisis por mortalidad, los costes diarios por paciente fueron similares (1.000 vs. 1.010€; p = 0,98). CONCLUSIONES: Desde la perspectiva española, no hubo diferencias en la URS y los costes entre los pacientes con neumonía tratados con linezolid o vancomicina. El coste de linezolid fue contrarrestado por la menor incidencia de fallo renal

Nosocomial pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with linezolid or vancomycin: A secondary economic analysis of resource use from a Spanish perspective.

OBJECTIVES: Adopting a unique Spanish perspective, this study aims to assess healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) and the costs of treating nosocomial pneumonia (NP) produced by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitalized adults using linezolid or vancomycin. An evaluation is also made of the renal failure rate and related economic outcomes between study groups. DESIGN: An economic post hoc evaluation of a randomized, double-blind, multicenter phase 4 study was carried out. SCOPE: Nosocomial pneumonia due to MRSA in hospitalized adults. PARTICIPANTS: The modified intent to treat (mITT) population comprised 224 linezolid- and 224 vancomycin-treated patients. INTERVENTIONS: Costs and HCRU were evaluated between patients administered either linezolid or vancomycin, and between patients who developed renal failure and those who did not. PRIMARY ENDPOINTS: Analysis of HCRU outcomes and costs. RESULTS: Total costs were similar between the linezolid- (€17,782±€9,615) and vancomycin-treated patients (€17,423±€9,460) (P=.69). The renal failure rate was significantly lower in the linezolid-treated patients (4% vs. 15%; P<.001). The total costs tended to be higher in patients who developed renal failure (€19,626±€10,840 vs. €17,388±€9,369; P=.14). Among the patients who developed renal failure, HCRU (days on mechanical ventilation: 13.2±10.7 vs. 7.6±3.6 days; P=.21; ICU stay: 14.4±10.5 vs. 9.9±6.6 days; P=.30; hospital stay: 19.5±9.5 vs. 16.1±11.0 days; P=.26) and cost (€17,219±€8,792 vs. €20,263±€11,350; P=.51) tended to be lower in the linezolid- vs. vancomycin-treated patients. There were no statistically significant differences in costs per patient-day between cohorts after correcting for mortality (€1000 vs. €1,010; P=.98). CONCLUSIONS: From a Spanish perspective, there were no statistically significant differences in total costs between the linezolid and vancomycin pneumonia cohorts. The drug cost corresponding to linezolid was partially offset by fewer renal failure adverse events.

Global survey on nebulization of antimicrobial agents in mechanically ventilated patients: a call for international guidelines.

Nebulized antimicrobial agents are increasingly administered for treatment of respiratory infections in mechanically ventilated (MV) patients. A structured online questionnaire assessing the indications, dosages and recent patterns of use for nebulized antimicrobial agents in MV patients was developed. The questionnaire was distributed worldwide and completed by 192 intensive care units. The most common indications for using nebulized antimicrobial agent were ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis (VAT; 58/87), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP; 56/87) and management of multidrug-resistant, Gram-negative (67/87) bacilli in the respiratory tract. The most common prescribed nebulized agents were colistin methanesulfonate and sulfate (36/87, 41.3% and 24/87, 27.5%), tobramycin (32/87, 36.7%) and amikacin (23/87, 26.4%). Colistin methanesulfonate, amikacin and tobramycin daily doses for VAP were significantly higher than for VAT (p < 0.05). Combination of parenteral and nebulized antibiotics occurred in 50 (86%) of 58 prescriptions for VAP and 36 (64.2%) of 56 of prescriptions for VAT. The use of nebulized antimicrobial agents in MV patients is common. There is marked heterogeneity in clinical practice, with significantly different in use between patients with VAP and VAT. Randomized controlled clinical trials and international guidance on indications, dosing and antibiotic combinations to improve clinical outcomes are urgently required.

Elaboration of a consensual definition of de-escalation allowing a ranking of ß-lactams.

Empirical broad spectrum antimicrobial therapy prescribed in life-threatening situations should be de-escalated to mitigate the risk of resistance emergence. Definitions of de-escalation (DE) vary among studies, thereby biasing their results. The aim of this study was to provide a consensus definition of DE and to establish a ranking of ß-lactam according to both their spectra and their ecological consequences. Twenty-eight experts from intensive care, infectious disease and clinical microbiology were consulted using the Delphi method (four successive questionnaires) from July to November 2013. More than 70% of similar answers to a question were necessary to reach a consensus. According to our consensus definition, DE purpose was to reduce both the spectrum of antimicrobial therapy and the selective pressure on microbiota. DE included switching from combination to monotherapy. A six-rank consensual classification of ß-lactams allowing gradation of DE was established. The group was unable to differentiate ecological consequences of molecules included in group 4, i.e. piperacillin/tazobactam, ticarcillin/clavulanic acid, fourth-generation cephalosporin and antipseudomonal third-generation cephalosporin. Furthermore, no consensus was reached on the delay within which DE should be performed and on whether or not the shortening of antibiotic therapy duration should be included in DE definition. This study provides a consensual ranking of ß-lactams according to their global ecological consequences that may be helpful in future studies on DE. However, this work also underlines the difficulties of reaching a consensus on the relative ecological impact of each individual drug and on the timing of DE.

Assessment of panobacumab as adjunctive immunotherapy for the treatment of nosocomial Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia.

The fully human anti-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) immunoglobulin M (IgM) monoclonal antibody panobacumab was developed as an adjunctive immunotherapy for the treatment of O11 serotype Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. We evaluated the potential clinical efficacy of panobacumab in the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia. We performed a post-hoc analysis of a multicenter phase IIa trial (NCT00851435) designed to prospectively evaluate the safety and pharmacokinetics of panobacumab. Patients treated with panobacumab (n = 17), including 13 patients receiving the full treatment (three doses of 1.2 mg/kg), were compared to 14 patients who did not receive the antibody. Overall, the 17 patients receiving panobacumab were more ill. They were an average of 72 years old [interquartile range (IQR): 64-79] versus an average of 50 years old (IQR: 30-73) (p = 0.024) and had Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores of 17 (IQR: 16-22) versus 15 (IQR: 10-19) (p = 0.043). Adjunctive immunotherapy resulted in an improved clinical outcome in the group receiving the full three-course panobacumab treatment, with a resolution rate of 85 % (11/13) versus 64 % (9/14) (p = 0.048). The Kaplan-Meier survival curve showed a statistically significantly shorter time to clinical resolution in this group of patients (8.0 [IQR: 7.0-11.5] versus 18.5 [IQR: 8-30] days in those who did not receive the antibody; p = 0.004). Panobacumab adjunctive immunotherapy may improve clinical outcome in a shorter time if patients receive the full treatment (three doses). These preliminary results suggest that passive immunotherapy targeting LPS may be a complementary strategy for the treatment of nosocomial O11 P. aeruginosa pneumonia.

European perspective and update on the management of nosocomial pneumonia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after more than 10 years of experience with linezolid.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important cause of antimicrobial-resistant hospital-acquired infections worldwide and remains a public health priority in Europe. Nosocomial pneumonia (NP) involving MRSA often affects patients in intensive care units with substantial morbidity, mortality and associated costs. A guideline-based approach to empirical treatment with an antibacterial agent active against MRSA can improve the outcome of patients with MRSA NP, including those with ventilator-associated pneumonia. New methods may allow more rapid or sensitive diagnosis of NP or microbiological confirmation in patients with MRSA NP, allowing early de-escalation of treatment once the pathogen is known. In Europe, available antibacterial agents for the treatment of MRSA NP include the glycopeptides (vancomycin and teicoplanin) and linezolid (available as an intravenous or oral treatment). Vancomycin has remained a standard of care in many European hospitals; however, there is evidence that it may be a suboptimal therapeutic option in critically ill patients with NP because of concerns about its limited intrapulmonary penetration, increased nephrotoxicity with higher doses, as well as the emergence of resistant strains that may result in increased clinical failure. Linezolid has demonstrated high penetration into the epithelial lining fluid of patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and shown statistically superior clinical efficacy versus vancomycin in the treatment of MRSA NP in a phase IV, randomized, controlled study. This review focuses on the disease burden and clinical management of MRSA NP, and the use of linezolid after more than 10 years of clinical experience.

[Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome]. / Le syndrome catastrophique des antiphospholipides.

The catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS) is a life-threatening condition resulting from rapidly progressive widespread thromboses mainly affecting the microvasculature in the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. Within a few days, the patients develop multiorgan failure with pulmonary distress, renal failure with severe hypertension, cerebral, cardiac, digestive or cutaneous involvement. CAPS develops in less than 1% of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome, either primary or associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. CAPS reveals the antiphospholipid syndrome in about 50% of cases. CAPS may be precipitated by infectious diseases, surgical procedures or discontinuation of anticoagulation. CAPS overall mortality rate has decreased in the past decade and is now around 30%. Within our hospital, it has been reduced to 10%. The main differential diagnoses are other thrombotic microangiopathies, and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. The treatment of CAPS consists of the empirical association of anticoagulation and corticosteroids, plus plasma exchange or intravenous immunoglobulins. Cyclophosphamide is added in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. The prevention of CAPS is based upon the adequate management of the perioperative period when surgery cannot be avoided, the prompt treatment of infections and the education of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome.

A European survey of antibiotic management of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection: current clinical opinion and practice.

Although the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) varies across Europe, healthcare-associated MRSA infections are common in many countries. Despite several national guidelines, the approach to treatment of MRSA infections varies across the continent, and there are multiple areas of management uncertainty for which there is little clinical evidence to guide practice. A faculty, convened to explore some of these areas, devised a survey that was used to compare the perspectives of infection specialists from across Europe on the management of MRSA infections with those of the faculty specialists. The survey instrument, a web-based questionnaire, was sent to 3840 registered delegates of the 19th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, held in April 2009. Of the 501 (13%) respondents to the survey, 84% were infection/microbiology specialists and 80% were from Europe. This article reports the survey results from European respondents, and shows a broad range of opinion and practice on a variety of issues pertaining to the management of minor and serious MRSA infections, such as pneumonia, bacteraemia, and skin and soft tissue infections. The issues include changing epidemiology, when and when not to treat, choice of treatment, and duration and route of treatment. The survey identified areas where practice can be improved and where further research is needed, and also identified areas of pan-European consensus of opinion that could be applied to European guidelines for the management of MRSA infection.

Microsatellite analysis of HSV-1 isolates: from oropharynx reactivation toward lung infection in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation.

BACKGROUND: According to recent reports, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) induces bronchopneumonitis (BPn) in immunocompetent patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation (MV), whose respiratory functions deteriorate with a poor outcome. HSV-1 BPn is associated with HSV symptomatic or symptomless reactivation in the oropharynx. OBJECTIVES: We sought to systematically and genetically characterize HSV-1 strains isolated from immunocompetent patients receiving prolonged MV and to characterize the genetic relationship of strains sequentially isolated from oropharyngeal samples (OPS) and broncho-alveolar liquids (BAL) to determine the natural course of HSV BPn. STUDY DESIGN: In this molecular epidemiological study, microsatellite technology was used to determine genetic relationships between 211 HSV-1 strains isolated from OPS and/or BAL from 106 patients receiving MV. RESULTS: Microsatellite haplotypes of HSV-1 strains sequentially isolated from the same individual were identical, and HSV-1 isolates from the lung were genetically indistinguishable from strains isolated from the oral cavity. Each patient was characterized by their own HSV-1 microsatellite haplotype, and no nosocomial transmission of strains between patients was observed. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that, in patients who receive MV, the HSV-1 pulmonary infection results from the reactivation of genetically related HSV-1 in the oropharynx, which progressively infects the lower respiratory tract.

Management of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.

This review addresses selected aspects of the management of severe healthcare-associated infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), including the limitations of current therapy, potential alternative agents, new therapeutic options, clinical approaches to MRSA bacteraemia/endocarditis and ventilator-associated pneumonia, and strategies to improve outcomes in patients with severe MRSA infections.

Evolving problems with resistant pathogens.

Over the past decade, patterns of resistance to antimicrobial agents have changed dramatically, particularly because of the increasing prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), as well as the increasing rate of antimicrobial resistance seen in several species of Gram-negative bacteria. The unique nature of the intensive care unit (ICU) environment makes it a focus for the emergence and spread of many antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. The patients in this setting are commonly exposed to broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents, and opportunities for the cross-transmission of resistant bacteria from patient to patient abound. Not surprisingly, resistance rates have increased for most pathogens associated with nosocomial infections among ICU patients, and rates are almost universally higher among ICU patients than among non-ICU patients. MRSA strains are now spreading in the community, possibly because of antibiotic pressure outside the hospital, but also because of transfer from hospital settings. Such strains are worrisome, particularly the strains carrying the gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), which has been associated with heightened virulence. Managing infections caused by today's pathogens requires avoidance of antimicrobial agent overuse and appropriate selection, dosing and duration of efficacious antimicrobial therapy.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome during systemic lupus erythematosus: four new cases and review of the literature.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) associates various neurological manifestations (headaches, seizures, altered mental status, cortical blindness, focal neurological deficits, vomiting) and transient changes on neuroimaging consistent with cerebral edema. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome mainly occurs in the setting of hypertension, eclampsia, renal failure and/or use of immunosuppressive drugs. We report four cases of PRES complicating systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In all our cases, renal involvement and hypertension were present. Neurological symptoms were typical. Magnetic resonance imaging showed posterior cerebral edema and in one case hemorrhagic complication. With symptomatic treatment and immunosuppressor withdrawal when they were previously used, symptoms fully resolved within 15 days in all cases, but one who had only partial regression related to cerebral hemorrhage. Including our cases, we reviewed a total of 46 patients with SLE and PRES. Their clinical and radiological presentation was not specific. The peculiar role of SLE itself in the occurrence of PRES was not clear, since hypertension (95%), renal involvement (91%), recent onset of immunosuppressive drugs (54%) and/or recent treatment with high intravenous dose of steroids (43%) were often present. The hypertension and other worsening factors should be treated. Finally, the evolution of this clinical and radiological spectacular syndrome is generally rapidly favorable.

Hospital-acquired pneumonia guidelines in Europe: a review of their status and future development.

Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) is the most common healthcare-acquired infection contributing to death. Effective management requires accurate diagnosis, administration of a suitable antibiotic regimen early in infection and implementation of prevention strategies. In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the number of country-specific HAP guidelines in Europe, which vary in their formulation, coverage of different disease aspects and overall recommendations. Development of comprehensive pan-European HAP guidelines would rationalize the conflicting proposals, provide a useful resource and limit guideline proliferation. However, careful consideration needs to be given to the principles of guideline development to ensure that the output is rigorous, broadly applicable and facilitates update as new data becomes available. The use of an evidence-based approach to HAP guideline development is optimal, but is compromised by limitations in the supporting data. The implementation of a formalized evidence grading system is key to introducing consistency into the guideline development process. Pan-European guidelines should provide recommendations on core aspects of HAP common to all treatment settings and locations, and reflect the differing perspectives of the countries involved. Given the different antibiotic susceptibility profiles across Europe, such guidelines should provide general treatment recommendations suitable for local adaptation. The development of such guidelines represents an ideal time to identify priorities for European research, by addressing controversies and identifying previously unconsidered aspects of HAP. Establishing a pan-European consensus on core processes of care should be viewed as an impetus for change to improve clinical practices and should include a suitable implementation strategy.