Central versus distal pancreatectomy for low-grade and benign pancreatic neck-body tumours.

PURPOSE: Central pancreatectomy (CP) offers parenchymal preservation compared to conventional distal pancreato-splenectomy for pancreatic neck and body tumours. However, it is associated with more morbidity. This study is aimed at evaluating the peri-operative and long-term functional outcomes, comparing central and distal pancreatectomies (DPs). METHODS: Retrospective analysis of patients undergoing pancreatic resections for low-grade malignant or benign tumours in pancreatic neck and body was performed (from January 2007 to December 2022). Preoperative imaging was reviewed for all cases, and only patients with uninvolved pancreatic tail, whereby a CP was feasible, were included. Peri-operative outcomes and long-term functional outcomes were compared between CP and DP. RESULTS: One hundred twenty-two (5.2%) patients, amongst the total of 2304 pancreatic resections, underwent central or distal pancreatectomy for low-grade malignant or benign tumours. CP was feasible in 55 cases, of which 23 (42%) actually underwent CP and the remaining 32 (58%) underwent DP. CP group had a significantly longer operative time [370 min (IQR 300-480) versus 300 min (IQR 240-360); p = 0.002]; however, the major morbidity (43.5% versus 37.5%; p = 0.655) and median hospital stay (10 versus 11 days; p = 0.312) were comparable. The long-term endocrine functional outcome was favourable for the CP group [endocrine insufficiency rate was 13.6% in central versus 42.8% in distal (p = 0.046)]. CONCLUSION: Central pancreatectomy offers better long-term endocrine function without any increased morbidity in low malignant potential or benign pancreatic tumours of neck and body region.

Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles by Penicillium rubens and catalytic detoxification of ochratoxin A and organic dye pollutants / Biosíntesis de nanopartículas de oro por Penicillium rubens y desintoxicación catalítica de ocratoxina A y contaminantes colorantes orgánicos

The environmental pollution caused by chemical dyes is a growing concern nowadays. Limitations of traditional methods opened the route for nanotechnology; owing to the versatile properties of nanomaterials, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) became a potential strategy for different applications. In the present study, biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (BioAuNPs) was carried out by reacting chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with cell-free filtrate of Penicillium rubens sp. nov. NCIM 1937. The AuNPs were then characterized by UV–visible spectroscopy, HR-TEM, FTIR, and DLS analysis to further examine their efficacious biosynthesis and morphological properties including size, shape, and stability. The biogenic AuNPs are polydisperse in nature, with a mean size of 14.92 ± 5 nm. These AuNPs exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli NCIM-2065, Bacillus subtilis NCIM-2010, and Penicillium verrucosum MTCC 4935. In vitro quantitative HPLC results revealed that BioAuNPs significantly inhibited the biosynthesis of ochratoxin A (OTA). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are intriguing for power generation and wastewater treatment since they can directly transform chemical energy stored in organic matter to electricity by extracellular electron transfer (EET) via membrane proteins. AuNPs also showed excellent potential for dye degradation of organic pollutants, viz., methylene blue (MB), phenol red (PR), bromothymol blue (BTB), Congo red (CR), and 4-nitrophenol (4-NP). All dye removal efficiencies were estimated and fitted to pseudo-first-order processes using kinetic rate constants (Ka).The present study reveals a simple, original, and eco-friendly method for the synthesis of multifunctional biogenic AuNPs that could be effective in OTA detoxification in food products and organic pollutant removal during wastewater treatment for a sustainable environment.(AU)

Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles by Penicillium rubens and catalytic detoxification of ochratoxin A and organic dye pollutants.

The environmental pollution caused by chemical dyes is a growing concern nowadays. Limitations of traditional methods opened the route for nanotechnology; owing to the versatile properties of nanomaterials, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) became a potential strategy for different applications. In the present study, biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (BioAuNPs) was carried out by reacting chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with cell-free filtrate of Penicillium rubens sp. nov. NCIM 1937. The AuNPs were then characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy, HR-TEM, FTIR, and DLS analysis to further examine their efficacious biosynthesis and morphological properties including size, shape, and stability. The biogenic AuNPs are polydisperse in nature, with a mean size of 14.92 ± 5 nm. These AuNPs exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli NCIM-2065, Bacillus subtilis NCIM-2010, and Penicillium verrucosum MTCC 4935. In vitro quantitative HPLC results revealed that BioAuNPs significantly inhibited the biosynthesis of ochratoxin A (OTA). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are intriguing for power generation and wastewater treatment since they can directly transform chemical energy stored in organic matter to electricity by extracellular electron transfer (EET) via membrane proteins. AuNPs also showed excellent potential for dye degradation of organic pollutants, viz., methylene blue (MB), phenol red (PR), bromothymol blue (BTB), Congo red (CR), and 4-nitrophenol (4-NP). All dye removal efficiencies were estimated and fitted to pseudo-first-order processes using kinetic rate constants (Ka).The present study reveals a simple, original, and eco-friendly method for the synthesis of multifunctional biogenic AuNPs that could be effective in OTA detoxification in food products and organic pollutant removal during wastewater treatment for a sustainable environment.

Aptamer Tethered Bio-Responsive Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Efficient Targeted Delivery of Paclitaxel to Treat Ovarian Cancer Cells.

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in female patients. The current therapeutics in ovarian cancer are limited and inefficient in curing the disease. To tackle this, we have synthesized tetrasulfide derivative of silica doped, biodegradable, glutathione-responsive targeted mesoporous silica nanoparticles modified with heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol as a linker and mucin-1 aptamer for triggered paclitaxel delivery to the ovarian cancer cells. Degradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles were synthesized by a modified sol-gel method with tetraethyl orthosilicate and Bis (triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulfide. The degradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy and Transmission electron microscopy. The degradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles had good paclitaxel encapsulation efficiency and glutathione-responsive paclitaxel release ability. The glutathione utilization assay and visual destruction observed within 10 days in transmission electron microscopy images confirmed the degradation of the mesoporous silica nanoparticles in the tumor cell environment. The targeted degradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles were efficiently taken up by ovarian cancer cell lines OVACAR-3 and PA-1. The cytotoxicity of bare mesoporous silica nanoparticles evaluated on NIH-3T3 cell line showed good biocompatibility (>90% cell viability). Significant toxicity on OVACAR-3 (IC50 25.66 nM) and PA-1 (IC50 42.93 nM) cell lines was observed when treated with paclitaxel-loaded targeted degradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Results of this study demonstrated that mucin-1 targeted, glutathione-responsive mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with paclitaxel had a significant antitumor effect on ovarian cancer cells. All these findings demonstrated that developed nano-formulation could be suitable for ovarian cancer treatment.

Challenges and emerging strategies for next generation liposomal based drug delivery: An account of the breast cancer conundrum.

The global cancer burden is witnessing an upsurge with breast cancer surpassing other cancers worldwide. Furthermore, an escalation in the breast cancer caseload is also expected in the coming years. The conventional therapeutic regimens practiced routinely are associated with many drawbacks to which nanotechnological interventions offer a great advantage. But how eminent could liposomes and their advantages be in superseding these existing therapeutic modalities? A solution is reflected in this review that draws attention to a decade-long journey embarked upon by researchers in this wake. This text is a comprehensive discussion of liposomes, the front runners of the drug delivery systems, and their active and passive targeting approaches for breast cancer management. Active targeting has been studied over the decade by many receptors overexpressed on the breast cancer cells and passive targeting with many drug combinations. The results converge on the fact that the actively targeted formulations exhibit a superior efficacy over their non-targeted counterparts and the all liposomal formulations are efficacious over the free drugs. This undoubtedly underlines the dominion of liposomal formulations over conventional chemotherapy. These investigations have led to the development of different liposomal formulations with active and passive targeting capacities that could be explored in depth. Acknowledging and getting a deeper insight into the liposomal evolution through time also unveiled many imperfections and unchartered territories that can be explored to deliver dexterous liposomal formulations against breast cancer and more in the clinical trial pipeline.

Quality of online media reports of suicide and attempted suicide in India.

Background: News media reporting of suicide may influence the masses toward or against suicidal behavior. So, responsible reporting by news media is important to protect vulnerable people from the deleterious effects of media reporting. World Health Organization has issued guidelines for media reporting of suicide in this regard. We planned this research to evaluate the quality of online news media reports of suicide and attempted suicides in India. Material and Methods: We assessed a total of 210 news reports about suicide and attempted suicides (70 English, 70 Malayalam, and 70 Hindi) to evaluate the reporting of harmful and protective characteristics in news according to the World Health Organization guidelines for reporting suicide in media. Results: We found all three language media reported almost all potentially harmful characteristics with gender (100%), location/site of suicide in the headline (97.61%), precipitating life events (95.24%), mentioning term 'Suicide' in the headline (98.10%), monocausal explanation for suicidality (90.95%), suicide method in the headline (90.95%), an accompanying photo (92.38%), and suicide method (93.81%) being reported with highest frequency. Potentially protective characteristics were not included in most news reports with poor focus on awareness information. Vernacular language media were poor as compared to English news media about the quality of reporting suicide. Conclusion: We found poor adherence to reporting guidelines by online news media for reporting of suicide with poor coverage of educative and awareness information for the general public. It underlines the need for improving awareness among media professionals about responsible reporting of suicide.

The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on the psychosocial health of medical students.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic had many psychological adverse effects due to fear and panic of infection. However social distancing and lockdown restrictions imposed to curb the spread of infection had an impact on the social life of people. The effects of this on the psychosocial health of the population were less explored area. Aim: To study the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on the psychosocial health of medical students. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted on medical students with the help of an online Google Form administering a questionnaire consisting of sociodemographic information; Coronavirus Social Distance Attitudes Scale and Attitude toward lockdown measure to assess favorable or opposing attitudes of participants toward social distancing and lockdown; Bergen Social Relationship Scale, Evaluation of Social System scale and Social Support Questionnaire to measure quality of social relations and social support satisfaction; and three item loneliness scale to evaluate feeling of loneliness. Results: The loneliness levels in participants were high (mean = 6.74 ± 0.79). There was a gender difference in the variables measured. Male students showed a favorable attitude toward social distancing (Positive social distance attitude scale P < 0.001, negative social distance attitude scale P < 0.001) and a better quality of social relations (Bergen Social relationship P < 0.001, evaluation of social system P < 0.001, SSQN P < 0.001, SSQS P < 0.001). However, male students scored more for loneliness as compared to females during the lockdown period (P < 0.001). Conclusion: The loneliness levels were high in medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown and even higher in males who were considered a non-vulnerable group. So the balanced approach between preventive restriction measures and the social connectedness of the population is advised for making social distancing policies in the future.

Impact of clinical rotational posting on attitude toward psychiatry of undergraduate medical students in Malaysia.

Background: Almost all over the world, psychiatry training of undergraduate medical students has been criticized to be deficient in imparting required knowledge and improving the perception of students towards psychiatry and psychiatric treatment. Considering the large mental health need gap in the community, it is essential to improve undergraduate students' attitude toward psychiatry. Aim: Hence, this study was planned to study the impact of psychiatry clinical posting on attitude toward psychiatry of undergraduate medical students. Materials and Methods: Undergraduate medical students undergoing psychiatry posting were assessed on the first and last day of clinical posting with the help of semi-structured proforma consisting of sociodemographic information, favored future career choice, the relevance of psychiatry to their future careers, the usefulness of particular knowledge and skills, the value of knowledge of psychiatric specialties and the utility of different settings for learning psychiatry. Results: After their clinical posting, students had a more positive attitude towards the usefulness of psychiatry knowledge in future general practice and the usefulness of psychiatry knowledge from undergraduate training in the future. Knowledge of alcohol withdrawal management, detection and management of delirium, and Mental Health Acts were perceived more essential in the future. Also, specialties such as deaddiction and child and adolescent psychiatry were felt more useful in future practice. After posting, students perceived that psychiatry can also be learned at medical and surgical wards as well as during home visits. However, despite some positive changes in attitude toward psychiatry, there was no significant change in choosing psychiatry as a career by the students after posting. Conclusion: Undergraduate psychiatry training during clinical posting was able to make some positive changes in the knowledge and attitude of students. However, still, there were lacunae in some areas of concern. Preference of psychiatry as a branch of specialization was not increased after posting. This indicates the need for better reforms in psychiatry education at the undergraduate level to improve the perception of undergraduate students about psychiatry.

Mechanistic insight into differential interactions of iron oxide nanoparticles with native, glycated albumin and their effect on erythrocytes parameters.

Nanoparticles and protein bioconjugates have been studied for multiple biomedical applications. We sought to investigate the interaction and structural modifications of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs). The IONPs were green synthesized using E. crassipes aqueous leaf extract following characterization using transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis and X-ray diffraction. Two different concentrations of native/glycated albumin (0.5 and 1.5 mg/ml) with IONPs were allowed to interact for 1 h at 37 °C. Glycation markers, protein modification markers, cellular antioxidant, and hemolysis studies showed structural modifications and conformational changes in albumin due to the presence of IONPs. UV-visible absorbance resulted in hyperchromic and bathochromic effects of IONPs-BSA conjugates. Fluorescence measurements of tyrosine, tryptophan, advanced glycated end products, and ANS binding assay were promising and quenching effects proved IONPs-BSA conjugate formation. In FTIR of BSA-IONPs, transmittance was increased in amide A and B bands while decreased in amide I and II bands. In summary, native PAGE, HPLC, and FTIR analysis displayed a differential behaviour of IONPs with native and glycated BSA. These results provided an understanding of the interaction and structural modifications of glycated and native BSA which may provide fundamental repercussions in future studies.

Isolation and Characterization of Chitosans from Different Fungi with Special Emphasis on Zygomycetous Dimorphic Fungus Benjaminiella poitrasii: Evaluation of Its Chitosan Nanoparticles for the Inhibition of Human Pathogenic Fungi.

The cell wall chitosan was extracted from fungi belonging to different taxonomic classes, namely, Benjaminiella poitrasii (Zygomycetes, dimorphic), Hanseniaspora guilliermondii, Issatchenkia orientalis, Pichia membranifaciens, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Ascomycetes, yeasts), and Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus sajor-caju (Basidiomycetes). The maximum yield of chitosan was 60.89 ± 2.30 mg/g of dry mycelial biomass of B. poitrasii. The degree of deacetylation (DDA) of chitosan extracted from different fungi, as observed with 1H NMR, was in the range of 70-93%. B. poitrasii chitosan exhibited the highest DDA (92.78%). The characteristic absorption bands were observed at 3450, 1650, 1420, 1320, and 1035 cm-1 by FTIR. Compared to chitosan from marine sources (molecular weight, MW, 585 kDa), fungal chitosans showed lower MW (6.21-46.33 kDa). Further, to improve the efficacy of B. poitrasii chitosan (Bp), nanoparticles (Np) were synthesized using the ionic gelation method and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS). For yeast and hyphal chitosan nanoparticles (BpYCNp and BpHCNp), the average particle size was <200 nm with polydispersity index of 0.341 ± 0.03 and 0.388 ± 0.002, respectively, and the zeta potential values were 21.64 ± 0.34 and 24.48 ± 1.58 mV, respectively. The B. poitrasii chitosans and their nanoparticles were further evaluated for antifungal activity against human pathogenic Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Candida glabrata NCYC 388, Candida tropicalis ATCC 750, Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC 34664, and Aspergillus niger ATCC 10578. BpHCNps showed lower MIC90 values (0.025-0.4 mg/mL) than the chitosan polymer against the tested human pathogens. The study suggested that nanoformulation of fungal chitosan, which has low molecular weight and high % DDA, is desirable for antifungal applications against human pathogens. Moreover, chitosans as well as their nanoparticles were found to be hemocompatible and are therefore safe for healthcare applications.

Lipase-mediated multicomponent synthesis of 1H-Pyrazolo[1,2-b]phthalazine-5,10-dione derivatives in a binary solvent medium.

A new method for the synthesis of 1H-pyrazolo[1,2-b]phthalazine-5,10-dione derivatives via lipase from the Aspergillus niger-catalyzed multicomponent reaction of aldehydes, malononitrile, and phthalhydrazide is reported herein for the first time. This novel method holds several advantages, including its efficiency, environmental friendliness, simple workup procedure, and good yield (70-86%). The effects of temperature, organic solvents, and water content were investigated. This protocol has the potential to replace traditional chemical synthesis routes for the synthesis of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds.

Cumulative Mortality and Factors Associated With Outcomes of Mucormycosis After COVID-19 at a Multispecialty Tertiary Care Center in India.

Importance: An outbreak of COVID-19-associated rhino-orbitocerebral mucormycosis (CAM) has occurred in many parts of the world. Although the clinical profile and risk factors for CAM have been studied, cumulative mortality and its risk factors have not. Objective: To report the cumulative mortality rates at different times in cases with CAM and identify risk factors for CAM-associated mortality. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective case-control study was conducted from March 1 to May 30, 2021, in a tertiary care multispecialty hospital in western India. All patients diagnosed with CAM and with a minimum follow-up of 30 days or those who died before 30 days due to CAM were included. Main Outcomes and Measure: Cumulative mortality in CAM using survival analysis. Results: A total of 73 consecutive patients with CAM with a mean (SD) age of 53.5 (12.5) years were included in the analysis, of whom 48 (66%) were men. CAM developed at a median of 28 (IQR, 15-45; range, 4-90) days after recovery from COVID-19. Of the 73 patients with CAM, 26 (36%) died; the cumulative probability of death was 26% (95% CI, 16%-41%) at day 7 and doubled to 53% (95% CI, 39%-69%) at day 21. Sinus debridement was performed in 18 of 51 patients (35%), and 5 of 52 (10%) underwent exenteration, whereas intravenous lyophilized amphotericin B was administered to 48 patients (66%). A multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression analysis showed that receiving mechanical ventilation in the past was associated with a nearly 9-fold increased risk of death (hazard ratio [HR], 8.98; 95% CI, 2.13-38.65; P = .003), and patients who had visual acuity of light perception or better had a 46% lower risk of death (HR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.32-0.98; P = .04). Intravenous amphotericin B administration was associated with a reduced rate of exenteration (0 vs 5 of 25 [20%]; P < .001). On multivariate analysis, those who received intravenous amphotericin B had a 69% reduced risk of death (HR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.06-1.43; P = .13). Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest that the mortality rate after rhino-orbitocerebral mucormycosis is high and that a subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 or presenting with severe orbital disease are more likely to die within 10 days of admission.

Burnout and resilience in doctors in clinical and preclinical departments in a tertiary care teaching and dedicated COVID-19 hospital.

BACKGROUND: The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic has significantly altered our life. Doctors more so than the general public because of their involvement in managing the COVID-infected individuals, some of them 24/7 end in burnout. Burnout in doctors can lead to reduced care of patients, increased medical errors, and poor health. Burnout among frontline health-care workers has become a major problem in this ongoing epidemic. On the other hand, doctors in preclinical department have a lack of interaction with patients, with not much nonclinical professional work to boot, find the profession less gratifying which perhaps increase their stress level. AIM: The aim was to study the prevalence of burnout and measure resilience in doctors in clinical and in preclinical departments. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This observational, cross-sectional, comparative study was carried out in a tertiary care teaching hospital and COVID care center. By purposive sampling 60 preclinical and 60 clinical doctors in a tertiary health care center were included in the study. After obtaining the Institutional Ethics Committee approval and informed consent, the doctors were administered a self made socio-demographic questionnaire, the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory, and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale. Doctors were given a self-made questionnaire, the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory, and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale. RESULTS: The prevalence of burnout was seen more in clinical doctors (55.47) and the resilience was observed more in preclinical doctors (88.9). DISCUSSION: Resident doctors are a major force to combat COVID-19 as frontline health workers; hence, one can visualize burnout amongst them. On an individual basis, the work-related burnout was severely high in the clinical group owing to the workload which has been corresponding to a number of western studies. Nonclinical department doctors from pathology, community medicine, and microbiology did show burnout but showed a greater score in resilience. Psychological resilience has been identified as a component in preventing burnout. CONCLUSION: Therapy sessions can be used in clinical doctors facing burnout to build up their resilience.

Prevalence of smartphone addiction and its relation with sleep disturbance and low self- esteem among medical college students.

BACKGROUND: Use of smartphone is on the increase worldwide. They have revolutionized our lives to an extent that was unimaginable before the pandemic. Excessive use of smartphones reaching the levels of potential addiction among medical students and its relation to individual's sleep quality and self-esteem led us to study this prevalence. AIM: This stuay aimed to study the prevalence of smartphone addiction and its relation with self-esteem and sleep disturbance in medical college students. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross sectional analytical study was carried out and the prevalence of smartphone addiction, self- esteem, and sleep disturbance was measured using standardized questionnaires smartphone addiction scale short form, Rosenberg self esteem scale, Pittsburgh sleep quality index assessment respectively. RESULTS: Prevalence of smartphone addiction among medical college students was 52%. Smartphone addiction was seen more in boys than girls. There was a significant association between the smartphone addiction and sleep disturbance. However, there was no significant association between smartphone addiction and low self-esteem. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of smartphone addiction among medical students is found to be high and is associated with poor sleep.

Neuropsychiatric involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: A case series.

Patients with systemic lupus erythematous that suffers from one or more of several neuropsychiatric symptoms represent a subcategory termed "neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus" (NPSLE). Different environmental factors, such as infection, stress, and ischemia, mediated by inflammatory cytokines, may damage the blood-brain barrier, further contributing to neuropsychiatric symptoms. Antiribosomal-P antibodies are specifically related to psychosis in NPSLE. Three patients of systemic lupus erythematosus who developed features of psychosis are presented and the condition is briefly discussed.

Polysubstance abuse in adolescence: A case series.

Substance use and abuse in adolescents is a major public health concern in India where a high proportion of the population are in this age group. The most common substances used by adolescents are tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana, but include a wider range of substances. Two patients with polysubstance abuse are presented. After initial detoxification, both were started with dialectical behavioral therapy and motivational enhancement therapy along with family therapy; both have been on regular follow-up and currently maintaining well.

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a healthcare crisis that has led to unprecedented impact on healthcare services. At the heart of the unparalleled crisis, doctors face several challenges in treating patients with COVID-19. The psychological burden and overall wellness of healthcare workers (HCWs) have received heightened awareness, with research continuing to show high rates of burnout, psychological stress, and suicide. Detrimental effects include high rates of infection and death, excessive financial hardships, stress related to known and particularly unknown information, and fear of uncertainty regarding continued impact. Some researchers focused specifically on COVID-19's impact on HCW sleep. Anxiety and stress were significantly increased, leading to negative impacts on both self-efficacy and sleep. Stress is an important factor in drug use. Efforts should be made to explore the factors that are associated with psychological distress, which may lead to symptoms of anxiety, depression, or provoke suicidal ideation, and efforts should be made to control the factors that are modifiable. There needs to be more awareness among doctors and further long-term studies focusing on their mental health as adverse mental health conditions will further affect them as the disease advances.

Memory: Neurobiological mechanisms and assessment.

Memory is the process of retaining of knowledge over a period for the function of affecting future actions. It can be divided into declarative and procedural types. The process of memory consolidation is done in the hippocampus. The long-term memories are spread among various areas of the cerebrum depending on the different perceptual properties. The process of long-term potentiation and molecular changes occurring during memory formation are discussed in detail below. The steps involved in memory formation include encoding, storage, and recall (retrieval) in that order. Amnesia is a phenomenon in which there is the problem in memory formation which can be due to trauma to the brain, certain diseases, or stressors. While the assessment of memory has greatly improved, we are only beginning to understand the underlying mechanisms.