A simplification of intricate multifocal electroretinogram understanding: A mini-review.

Variation of multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) data presentation in existing scientific publications is a challenge for eye care practitioners to apply the scientific information for evidence-based practice in patient management. This review offers an overview of the mfERG data presentation types. Eight types of data presentation in the form of a table, scatter plot, line graph, bar graph/box plot, single waveform/a group of waveforms, trace array topography, three-dimensional topography, and two-dimensional topography are identified. The table format is used to provide the exact values. Line graphs, scatter, and box plots offer information about the relationship of mfERG values. Waveforms are helpful for comparison between groups or conditions. Topographies outline the retinal, especially the specific localized retinal abnormalities. An infographic of fundamental mfERG electrical response with definitions and clinical indications is provided to bridge the gap between researchers and clinicians to facilitate efficient clinical application.

An Innovative Stent Consisting of Expanded Polytetrafluoroethylene and Ear Cartilage in Rhinoplasty For Asians: Application I of Dai's Exogenous Extension Stent Concept.

BACKGROUND: Restricted ventilation is common after rhinoplasty with an endogenous extension stent. The authors proposed an exogenous extension stent concept for Asian rhinoplasty patients to avoid this problem. Herein, we introduce an innovative stent in rhinoplasty for Asians, which is an application of this concept. METHODS: An L-shaped expanded polytetrafluoroethylene is hand-carved, and the long arm is placed at the nose back to improve the flatness of the nose, while the short arm supports the nasal column to raise the nose tip. The prosthesis does not occupy nasal volume and therefore theoretically does not affect nasal ventilation. The fan-shaped ear cartilage was placed at the nasal tip to prevent visualization of the nasal tip. The safety and effectiveness of this method were verified through 20 years of clinical practice. The difficulty of learning and popularizing the method was tested through the course of rhinoplasty among 22 plastic surgeons. RESULTS: After 20 years of clinical practice, it was found that this stent could not only effectively improve the nasal dorsum and tip morphology, but also did not actually affect the nasal volume and thus did not affect the nasal ventilation of patients. Among the trainees in plastic surgery, we found that it was not difficult to learn this method of rhinoplasty and the trainees could complete the prosthesis carving well after standardized training. CONCLUSION: This stent consisting of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene and ear cartilage is suitable in rhinoplasty for Asians with significant advantages, one of which is that it has no risk of resulting in restricted nasal ventilation. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Fabrication of modified electrode by reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and polyaniline (PANI) for enhancing azo dye decolorization in bio-electrochemical systems (BESs).

Bio-electrochemical systems (BESs) have attracted wide attention in the field of wastewater treatment owing to their fast electron transfer rate and high performance. Unfortunately, the low electro-chemical activity of carbonaceous materials commonly used in BESs remains a bottleneck for their practical applications. Especially, for refractory pollutants remediation, the efficiency is largely limited by the cathode property in term of (bio)-electrochemical reduction of highly oxidized functional groups. Herein, a reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and polyaniline (PANI) modified electrode was fabricated via two-step electro-deposition using carbon brush as raw material. Benefiting from the modified graphene sheets and PANI nanoparticles, the rGO/PANI electrode shows highly conductive network with the electro-active surface area increased by 12 times (0.013 mF cm-2) and the charge transfer resistance decreased by 92% (0.23Ω) comparing with the unmodified one. Most importantly, the rGO/PANI electrode used as abiotic cathode achieves highly efficient azo dye removal from wastewater. The highest decolorization efficiency reaches 96 ± 0.03% within 24 h and the maximum decolorization rate is as high as 20.9 ± 1.45 g h-1·m-3. The features of improved electro-chemical activity and enhanced pollutant removal efficiency provide a new insight toward development of high performance BESs via electrode modification for practical application.

[Intervention strategy based on Caprini risk assessment model and its clinical effect in preventing deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze clinical effect of intervention strategies based on Caprini thrombosis risk assessment model for preventing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) after total hip replacement (THR). METHODS: From January 2018 to December 2021, 197 patients with THR were selected as retrospective cohort study subjects, including 114 males and 83 females, aged from 45 to 80 years with an average of (66.81±10.34) years old. Caprini thrombosis risk assessment model introduced in May 2019 was used as boundary and divided into two groups, 94 patients were performed routine intervention strategies(control group) and 103 patients were received intervention strategies based on Caprini thrombosis risk assessment model (observation group). Incidence of DVT, visual analogue scale (VAS), circumference difference of affected limb, serum D-dimer (D-D) level and Harris score of hip function between two groups were analyzed. RESULTS: One-hundred and ninty-seven patients were followed up from 1 to 3 months with an average of (2.57±0.31) months. Incidence of DVT was 1.94% in observation group and 11.70% in control group, and there was statistical difference between two groups (χ2=6.642, P=0.010). VAS scores between two groups decreased gradually (P<0.001). There was significant difference between two groups in VAS score on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 7th day after operation (P<0.05), but no difference between two groups on the 10th day after operation (P>0.05). Difference in circumference of the affected limb between two groups after operation was gradually reduced (P<0.001), and the difference in circumference of the affected limb between two groups was statistically significant on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, and 10th day after operation(P<0.05). Levels of serum D-D between two groups were gradually decreased after operation(P<0.05), and differences in serum D-D levels between two groups on the 8th, 24th, 48th, and 72th hour after operation were statistically significant (P<0.05). Pain score and Harris total scores between two groups were significantly increased as tomes goes on(P<0.001), no difference in VAS at 3 months after discharge, and there were statistically significant differences in Harris scores between two groups immediately after discharge, 1 month and 3 months after discharge (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: Intervention strategy based on Caprini thrombosis risk assessment model could reduce incidence of DVT in patients with THR, improve postoperative pain and swelling of the affected limb, and promote recovery of hip joint function.

A simpler noninvasive method of predicting markedly elevated pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.

Several echocardiographic methods to estimate pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) have been proposed. So far, most studies have focused on relatively low PVR in patients with a nonspecific type of pulmonary hypertension. We aimed to clarify the clinical usefulness of a new echocardiographic index for evaluating markedly elevated PVR in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). We studied 127 CTEPH patients. We estimated the systolic and mean pulmonary artery pressure using echocardiography (sPAPEcho, mPAPEcho) and measured the left ventricular internal diameter at end diastole (LVIDd). sPAPEcho/LVIDd and mPAPEcho/LVIDd were then correlated with invasive PVR. Using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, a cutoff value for the index was generated to identify patients with PVR > 1000 dyn·s·cm-5. We analyzed pre- and postoperative hemodynamics and echocardiographic data in 49 patients who underwent pulmonary endarterectomy (PEA). In this study, mPAPEcho/LVIDd moderately correlated with PVR (r = 0.51, p < 0.0001). There was a better correlation between PVR and sPAPEcho/LVIDd (r = 0.61, p < 0.0001). sPAPEcho/LVIDd ≥ 1.94 had an 77.1% sensitivity and 75.4% specificity to determine PVR > 1000 dyn·s·cm-5 (area under curve = 0.804, p < 0.0001, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.66-0.90). DeLong's method showed there was a statistically significant difference between sPAPEcho/LVIDd with tricuspid regurgitation velocity2/velocity-time integral of the right ventricular outflow tract (difference between areas 0.14, 95% CI, 0.00-0.27). The sPAPEcho/LVIDd and mPAPEcho/LVIDd significantly decreased after PEA (both p < 0.0001). The sPAPEcho/LVIDd and mPAPEcho/LVIDd reduction rate (ΔsPAPEcho/LVIDd and ΔmPAPEcho/LVIDd) was significantly correlated with PVR reduction rate (ΔPVR), respectively (r = 0.58, p < 0.01; r = 0.69, p < 0.05). In conclusion, the index of sPAPEcho/LVIDd could be a simpler and reliable method in estimating CTEPH with markedly elevated PVR and also be a convenient method of estimating PVR both before and after PEA.

Impact of Color and Polarity on Visual Resolution with Varying Contrast Ratios and Different Text Backgrounds.

Purpose: To assess the impact of color and polarity in predicting the changes of visual resolution for different text backgrounds with increasing contrast ratios. Methods: Text-background designs of eight contrast ratios (0.15, 0.30, 0.47, 0.52, 0.57, 0.60, 0.70, and 0.78) and two text polarities (positive; black text and negative; white text) were compared with and without the presence of background color (blue, green, orange, and red). The visual resolution was measured in logMAR using Landolt C. The rate of changes in visual resolution measurements was analyzed using linear regression as contrast ratios increased with and without background color. Results: Visual resolution varied significantly with and without the background color element under both polarity investigations (P < 0.05). Contrast ratio accounts for 77.4% of the variation within the visual resolution measurement with a color background [F ( 1 , 6 ) = 20.76, P < 0.01]. Contrast ratio accounts for 97.16% of the variation in visual resolution measurements without a color background [F ( 1 , 6 ) = 205.63, P < 0.01]. Conclusion: As contrast decreases, color plays a more significant role than the non-color factor in the resolution of fine details in both polarities as it influences the visual resolution outcome which is reflected in the measurements in logMAR units.

A Survey on Daily Activity Inclination and Health Complaints among Urban Youth in Malaysia.

Environmental influence is one of the attributing factors for health status. Chronic interaction with electronic display technology and lack of outdoor activities might lead to health issues. Given the concerns about the digital impact on lifestyle and health challenges, we aimed to investigate the daily activity inclination and health complaints among the Malaysian youth. A self-administered questionnaire covering lifestyle and health challenges was completed by 220 youths aged between 16 and 25. There were a total of 22 questions. Seven questions inspected the patterns of indoor and outdoor activities. Fifteen questions focused on the visual and musculoskeletal symptoms linked to both mental and physical health. The total time spent indoors (15.0 ± 5.4 hours/day) was significantly higher than that spent outdoors (2.5 ± 2.6 hours/day) (t = 39.01, p < 0.05). Total time engrossed in sedentary activities (13.0 ± 4.5 hours/day) was significantly higher than that in nonsedentary activities (4.5 ± 3.8 hours/day) comprised of indoor sports and any outdoor engagements (t = 27.10, p < 0.05). The total time spent on electronic related activities (9.5 ± 3.7 hours/day) was were higher than time spent on printed materials (3.4 ± 1.6 hours/day) (t = 26.01, p < 0.05). The association of sedentary activities was positive in relation to tired eyes (χ 2 = 17.58, p < 0.05), sensitivity to bright light (χ 2 = 12.10, p < 0.05), and neck pain (χ 2 = 17.27, p < 0.05) but negative in relation to lower back pain (χ 2 = 8.81, p < 0.05). Our youth spent more time in building and engaged in sedentary activities, predominantly electronic usage. The health-related symptoms, both visual and musculoskeletal symptoms, displayed a positive association with a sedentary lifestyle and a negative association with in-building time.

Comparison of open-ended and close-ended questions to determine signs and symptoms of eye problems among children / Comparación entre las preguntas con respuesta abierta y cerrada para determinar los signos y síntomas de los problemas oculares en los niños

BACKGROUND: Parents play important role in providing information regarding their children's health status to healthcare providers. However, parents' ability in reporting signs and symptoms of eye problems among their children required more in-depth investigation. Our study aimed to compare the differences of parental report regarding eye problems among their children using two different question approaches. METHODS: A total of 416 parents with children aged between two months old and 17 years old were participated in this cross-sectional survey. The responses of parents' observation on signs and symptoms of eye problems were compared between one open-ended question and ten close-ended questions. We also examined the demographic contributing factors that could influence parental responses. RESULTS: The total count of reported signs and symptoms through open-ended and close-ended question was 164 and 529 reports, respectively. Parents reported more diverse (70% higher) categories of signs and symptoms in open-ended compared to close-ended questions. Parent's ability to report eye problems using open-ended question was associated with their gender (p < 0.05), but no similar significant association was found in close-ended questions. CONCLUSIÓN: Parents reported more signs and symptoms of eye problems among their children through close-ended questions (regardless of gender) and more diversified categories through open-ended question in this study suggested that different communication approaches might be needed in clinical practice between those who requested specific appointment and those attending screening or routine assessment. The discrepancy might imply the importance to enhance the parent's role in preventive eye care. Effective communication between eyecare providers and parents has the potential to improve paediatric eyecare delivery

ANTECEDENTES: Los padres juegan un papel importante a la hora de suministrar información a los profesionales sanitarios, con relación a la situación sanitaria de sus hijos. Sin embargo, la capacidad de los padres para reportar los signos y síntomas de los problemas oculares de sus hijos requiere una investigación más profunda. El objetivo de nuestro estudio fue comparar las diferencias de los informes parentales sobre los problemas oculares de sus hijos, utilizando dos enfoques de preguntas diferentes. MÉTODOS: Un total de 416 padres con hijos de edades comprendidas entre dos meses y 17 años participaron en esta encuesta transversal. Las respuestas de la observación de los padres sobre los signos y síntomas de los problemas oculares fueron comparados utilizando una pregunta con respuesta abierta y diez preguntas con respuesta cerrada. También examinamos los factores contributivos demográficos que podrían influir en las respuestas parentales. RESULTADOS: El recuento total de los signos y síntomas reportados a través de las preguntas con respuesta abierta y cerrada fue de 164 y 529 informes, respectivamente. Los padres reportaron más categorías diversas de signos y síntomas en las preguntas con respuestas abiertas (un 70% más) que en las de respuestas cerradas. La capacidad de los padres para reportar los problemas oculares utilizando preguntas con respuestas abiertas guardó relación con el sexo (p < 0,05), aunque no se encontró una asociación similar significativa en las preguntas con respuesta cerrada. CONCLUSIÓN: En este estudio, los padres reportaron más signos y síntomas de problemas oculares entre sus hijos a través de preguntas con respuesta cerrada (independientemente del sexo), y más categorías diversificadas entre las preguntas con respuesta abierta, lo cual sugiere que podrían necesitarse diferentes enfoques de comunicación en la práctica clínica entre aquellos que solicitaron una cita específica y aquellos que asistieron a un cribado o a una evaluación rutinaria. La discrepancia podría implicar la importancia de resaltar el papel de los padres en los cuidados oculares preventivos. La comunicación efectiva entre los profesionales de atención ocular y los padres tiene el potencial de mejorar la prestación de atención ocular pediátrica

Comparison of open-ended and close-ended questions to determine signs and symptoms of eye problems among children.

BACKGROUND: Parents play important role in providing information regarding their children's health status to healthcare providers. However, parents' ability in reporting signs and symptoms of eye problems among their children required more in-depth investigation. Our study aimed to compare the differences of parental report regarding eye problems among their children using two different question approaches. METHODS: A total of 416 parents with children aged between two months old and 17 years old were participated in this cross-sectional survey. The responses of parents' observation on signs and symptoms of eye problems were compared between one open-ended question and ten close-ended questions. We also examined the demographic contributing factors that could influence parental responses. RESULTS: The total count of reported signs and symptoms through open-ended and close-ended question was 164 and 529 reports, respectively. Parents reported more diverse (70% higher) categories of signs and symptoms in open-ended compared to close-ended questions. Parent's ability to report eye problems using open-ended question was associated with their gender (p<0.05), but no similar significant association was found in close-ended questions. CONCLUSION: Parents reported more signs and symptoms of eye problems among their children through close-ended questions (regardless of gender) and more diversified categories through open-ended question in this study suggested that different communication approaches might be needed in clinical practice between those who requested specific appointment and those attending screening or routine assessment. The discrepancy might imply the importance to enhance the parent's role in preventive eye care. Effective communication between eyecare providers and parents has the potential to improve paediatric eyecare delivery.

Comparison of the pediatric vision screening program in 18 countries across five continents.

PURPOSE: Incorporating mass pediatric vision screening programs as part of a national agenda can be challenging. This review assessed the implementation strategy of the existing pediatric vision screening program. METHODS: A search was performed on PubMed, EBSCO host MEDLINE Complete, and Scopus databases encompassing the past ten years for mass pediatric screening practice patterns that met the selection criteria regarding their objectives and implementation. Results were analyzed from 18 countries across five continents. RESULTS: Eight countries (44%) offered screening for distance visual acuity only, where the majority of the countries (88%) used either Snellen or Tumbling E chart. High-income countries initiated screening earlier and applied a more comprehensive approach, targeting conditions other than reduced vision only, compared with middle-income countries. Chart-based testing was most commonly performed, with only three countries incorporating an instrument-based approach. Lack of eyecare and healthcare practitioners frequently necessitated the involvement of non-eyecare personnel (94%) as a vision screener including parent, trained staff, and nurse. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of a vision screening program was diverse within countries preceded by limited resources issues. Lack of professional eyecare practitioners implied the need to engage a lay screener. The limitation of existing tests to detect a broader range of visual problems at affordable cost advocated the urgent need for the development of an inexpensive and comprehensive screening tool.

The influence of age, refractive error, visual demand and lighting conditions on accommodative ability in Malay children and adults.

PURPOSE: Near work, accommodative inaccuracy and ambient lighting conditions have all been implicated in the development of myopia. However, differences in accommodative responses with age and refractive error under different visual conditions remain unclear. This study explores differences in accommodative ability and refractive error with exposure to differing ambient illumination and visual demands in Malay schoolchildren and adults. METHODS: Sixty young adults (21-25 years) and 60 schoolchildren (8-12 years) were recruited. Accommodative lag and accommodative fluctuations at far (6 m) and near (25 cm) were measured using the Grand Seiko WAM-5500 open-field autorefractor. The effects of mesopic room illumination on accommodation were also investigated. RESULTS: Repeated-measures ANOVA indicated that accommodative lag at far and near differed significantly between schoolchildren and young adults [F(1.219, 35.354) = 11.857, p < 0.05]. Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction showed that at near, there was a greater lag in schoolchildren (0.486 ± 0.181 D) than young adults (0.259 ± 0.209 D, p < 0.05). Repeated-measures ANOVA also revealed that accommodative lag at near demands differed statistically between the non-myopic and myopic groups in young adults and schoolchildren [F(3.107, 31.431) = 12.187, p < 0.05]. Post hoc tests with Bonferroni correction showed that accommodative lag at near was significantly greater in myopic schoolchildren (0.655 ± 0.198 D) than in non-myopic schoolchildren (0.202 ± 0.141 D, p < 0.05) and myopic young adults (0.316 ± 0.172 D, p < 0.05), but no significant difference was found between myopic young adults (0.316 ± 0.172 D) and non-myopic young adults (0.242 ± 0.126 D, p > 0.05). Accommodative lag and fluctuations were greater under mesopic room conditions for all ages [all p < 0.05]. CONCLUSION: Greater accommodative lag was found in myopes than in emmetropes, in schoolchildren than in adults, and under mesopic conditions than under photopic conditions. Accommodative fluctuations were greatest in myopes and in mesopic conditions. These results suggest that differences exist in the amount of blur experienced by myopes and non-myopes at different ages and under different lighting conditions.

Age factor affects reading acuity and reading speed in attaining text information.

AIM: To investigate the effect of age on reading acuity and reading speed in attaining text information in healthy eyes. METHODS: Reading acuity, critical print size, reading speed and maximum reading speed were measured in groups of 40 children (8 to 12 years old), 40 teenagers (13 to 19 years old), 40 young adults (20 to 39 years old), and 40 adults (40 years old and above) using the Buari-Chen Malay Reading Chart [contextual sentences (CS) set and random words (RW) set] in a cross-sectional study design. RESULTS: Reading acuity was significantly improved by 0.04 logMAR for both CS set and RW set from children to teenagers, then gradually worsened from young adults to adults (CS set: 0.06 logMAR; RW set: 0.08 logMAR). Critical print size for children showed a significant improvement in teenagers (CS set: 0.14 logMAR; RW set: 0.07 logMAR), then deteriorated from young adults to adults by 0.09 logMAR only for CS set. Reading speed significantly increased from children to teenagers, [CS set: 46.20 words per minute (wpm); RW set: 42.06 wpm], then stabilized from teenagers to young adults, and significantly reduced from young adults to adults (CS set: 28.58 wpm; RW set: 24.44 wpm). Increment and decrement in maximum reading speed measurement were revealed from children to teenagers (CS set: 39.38 wpm; RW set: 43.38 wpm) and from young adults to adults (CS set: 22.26 wpm; RW set: 26.31 wpm) respectively. CONCLUSION: The reference of age-related findings in term of acuity and speed of reading should be incorporated in clinical practice to enhance reading assessment among healthy eyes population.

Comparison of reading speed with 3 different log-scaled reading charts.

BACKGROUND: A reading chart that resembles real reading conditions is important to evaluate the quality of life in terms of reading performance. The purpose of this study was to compare the reading speed of UiTM Malay related words (UiTM-Mrw) reading chart with MNread Acuity Chart and Colenbrander Reading Chart. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty subjects with normal sight were randomly recruited through randomized sampling in this study (mean age=22.98±1.65 years). Subjects were asked to read three different near charts aloud and as quickly as possible at random sequence. The charts were the UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart, MNread Acuity Chart and Colenbrander Reading Chart, respectively. The time taken to read each chart was recorded and any errors while reading were noted. Reading performance was quantified in terms of reading speed as words per minute (wpm). RESULTS: The mean reading speed for UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart, MNread Acuity Chart and Colenbrander Reading Chart was 200±30wpm, 196±28wpm and 194±31wpm, respectively. Comparison of reading speed between UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart and MNread Acuity Chart showed no significant difference (t=-0.73, p=0.72). The same happened with the reading speed between UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart and Colenbrander Reading Chart (t=-0.97, p=0.55). Bland and Altman plot showed good agreement between reading speed of UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart with MNread Acuity Chart with the Colenbrander Reading Chart. CONCLUSION: UiTM-Mrw Reading Chart in Malay language is highly comparable with standardized charts and can be used for evaluating reading speed.

Comparison on testability of visual acuity, stereo acuity and colour vision tests between children with learning disabilities and children without learning disabilities in government primary schools.

CONTEXT: Children with learning disabilities might have difficulties to communicate effectively and give reliable responses as required in various visual function testing procedures. AIMS: The purpose of this study was to compare the testability of visual acuity using the modified Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) and Cambridge Crowding Cards, stereo acuity using Lang Stereo test II and Butterfly stereo tests and colour perception using Colour Vision Test Made Easy (CVTME) and Ishihara's Test for Colour Deficiency (Ishihara Test) between children in mainstream classes and children with learning disabilities in special education classes in government primary schools. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 100 primary school children (50 children from mainstream classes and 50 children from special education classes) matched in age were recruited in this cross-sectional comparative study. The testability was determined by the percentage of children who were able to give reliable respond as required by the respective tests. 'Unable to test' was defined as inappropriate response or uncooperative despite best efforts of the screener. RESULTS: The testability of the modified ETDRS, Butterfly stereo test and Ishihara test for respective visual function tests were found lower among children in special education classes ( P < 0.001) but not in Cambridge Crowding Cards, Lang Stereo test II and CVTME. CONCLUSION: Non verbal or "matching" approaches were found to be more superior in testing visual functions in children with learning disabilities. Modifications of vision testing procedures are essential for children with learning disabilities.

Comparison of vision disorders between children in mainstream and special education classes in government primary schools in Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION: The visual status of children with learning disabilities has not been extensively studied. This study aimed to compare vision disorders between children in mainstream classes and those with learning disabilities attending special education classes in government primary schools in Malaysia. METHODS: In this cross-sectional comparative study, 60 school children (30 from mainstream classes and 30 from special education classes) who were matched in age (6-12 years old) and ethnicity (Malay, Chinese and Indian) were examined. The subjects were recruited using non-probability convenience sampling. A complete eye examination was performed to detect three major vision disorders, namely refractive error, lag of accommodation and convergence insufficiency. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of refractive error, lag of accommodation and convergence insufficiency was found to be 65.0%, 43.3% and 35.2%, respectively. Convergence insufficiency (χ² = 24.073, p < 0.001) was found to be associated with children in special education classes. No association was found between refractive error and lag of accommodation (p > 0.05) with the type of classes. CONCLUSION: Children in special education classes are more likely to have convergence insufficiency compared to children in mainstream classes. Thus, vision screening programmes for children in special education classes may need to be modified.

Comparison of job satisfaction among eight health care professions in private (non-government) settings.

BACKGROUND: A comparison of the job satisfaction of health care professionals has not been well studied in Malaysia. This study aimed to compare the job satisfaction level among 8 groups of health care professionals in private settings, using the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS). METHODS: A total of 81 health care professionals, including nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, medical laboratory technologists, dieticians, medical imaging practitioners, environmental health officers, and optometrists in private (non-government) settings in the Klang Valley, were interviewed using the Job Satisfaction Survey scale invented by Dr Paul E Spector. Their job satisfaction scores were calculated and determined. RESULTS: In the demographic data, the majority of the subjects were 20-30 years old (81.5%), were female (72.8%), had a basic degree (98.8%), were single (64.2%), and had 1-5 years of working experience (83.9%). A Kruskal-Wallis analysis showed significant differences (P < 0.05) in promotion, supervision, operating conditions, co-workers, nature of the work, and communication, but there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in pay, fringe benefits, and contingent rewards in JSS score among the 8 health care professions. The Friedman Test showed a significant difference of overall JSS scores (χ(2) = 526.418, P < 0.001) among the 8 health care professions. CONCLUSION: The overall job satisfaction levels are different among health care professionals in private settings, especially regarding promotion, supervision, operating conditions, co-workers, the nature of the work, and communication.

Comparison of refractive error and visual impairment between Native Iban and Malay in a formal government school vision loss prevention programme.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiological study of vision problems is important for developing national strategies for the prevention of visual impairment. There was a lack of information regarding vision problems among school children in East Malaysia. The purpose of this study was to compare the refractive errors and degrees of visual impairment between Native Iban and Malay school children who participated in a formal government vision loss prevention programme conducted in a rural area of Betong Division, Malaysia. METHODS: In total, 293 Native Iban and Malay school children (Standard 1, Standard 6, and Form 3) received refractive assessments by an optometrist after failing tests in the formal government school vision screening programme in 2008. A criterion for referral was a visual acuity of 6/9 or worse in either eye. Assessments of the refractive errors of the children were performed using dry retinoscopy and subjective refraction techniques at community clinics. RESULTS: The overall prevalences of refractive error and visual impairment among the sampled populations were 47.7% and 3.5%, respectively. Approximately 97.1% of reported cases were myopia. The Malay sample population was found to be more myopic than the Native Iban population (U = 8240.50, P < 0.05, r = 0.14), but no significant association was found between myopia and ethnicity (χ(2) = 2.66, P > 0.05). Both Native Iban and Malay children in education levels higher than Standard 1 were more likely to have myopia (P < 0.05). Myopia was found to be more likely to affect females than males at a statistically significant level among Native Iban children (χ(2) [1.N = 170] = 6.279, P < 0.05, odds ratio = 2.327, 95% CI = 1.184-4.575). There was no statistically significant association between visual impairment and ethnicity (χ(2) = 1.60, P > 0.05). Approximately 94.1% of children with refractive errors suffered from having either the wrong prescription (7.8%) or having uncorrected refractive errors (92.2%). CONCLUSION: The Native Iban population was found to be less myopic than the Malay population despite having a similar frequency of myopia. The proportion of children with myopia increased with the level of education in both ethnicities. A high percentage of untreated refractive error problems among Native Iban and Malay children in the Betong Division indicates that there is a need for government intervention for the purpose of economic and healthcare improvements.

Comparison of visual acuity estimates using three different letter charts under two ambient room illuminations.

BACKGROUND: Visual acuity is an essential estimate to assess ability of the visual system and is used as an indicator of ocular health status. AIM: The aim of this study is to investigate the consistency of acuity estimates from three different clinical visual acuity charts under two levels of ambient room illumination. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study involved thirty Malay university students aged between 19 and 23 years old (7 males, 23 females), with their spherical refractive error ranging between plano and -7.75D, astigmatism ranging from plano to -1.75D, anisometropia less than 1.00D and with no history of ocular injury or pathology. Right eye visual acuity (recorded in logMAR unit) was measured with Snellen letter chart (Snellen), wall mounted letter chart (WM) and projected letter chart (PC) under two ambient room illuminations, room light on and room light off. RESULTS: Visual acuity estimates showed no statistically significant difference when measured with the room light on and with the room light off (F1,372 = 0.26, P = 0.61). Post-hoc analysis with Tukey showed that visual acuity estimates were significantly different between the Snellen and PC (P = 0.009) and between Snellen and WM (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Different levels of ambient room illumination had no significant effect on visual acuity estimates. However, the discrepancies in estimates of visual acuity noted in this study were purely due to the type of letter chart used.

Relating vision status to academic achievement among year-2 school children in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: Vision affects daily activities, but of particular importance is the impact upon the learning process. Many studies have been conducted to establish the relationship between vision problems and academic performance. The results are varied, however, and suggest additional research is needed with particular care given to study design. METHODS: This study included 1,103 year-2 school children enrolled in 7 public schools in the Klang Valley region of Malaysia. There were an equal proportion of males (50.6%) and females (49.4%). The testing battery was designed to assess visual acuity, ocular muscle balance, visual analysis skills, visual-spatial skills, and visual-motor integration skills. RESULTS: Children with average and above-average achievement showed a different visual performance profile from those children with low academic achievement. They had a statistically significant better pass rate in physical aspects (visual acuity), physiological aspects (ocular motor balance), and perceptual aspects (visual-motor integration/visual-spatial and visual-analysis skills). CONCLUSION: Children with low academic achievement are more likely to exhibit problems in visual acuity, ocular motor balance, visual-motor integration and most all components of visual analysis skills. This finding supports the concept that visual performance is key to learning and therefore of chief concern as to school achievement.