A fully integrated wearable ultrasound system to monitor deep tissues in moving subjects.

Recent advances in wearable ultrasound technologies have demonstrated the potential for hands-free data acquisition, but technical barriers remain as these probes require wire connections, can lose track of moving targets and create data-interpretation challenges. Here we report a fully integrated autonomous wearable ultrasonic-system-on-patch (USoP). A miniaturized flexible control circuit is designed to interface with an ultrasound transducer array for signal pre-conditioning and wireless data communication. Machine learning is used to track moving tissue targets and assist the data interpretation. We demonstrate that the USoP allows continuous tracking of physiological signals from tissues as deep as 164 mm. On mobile subjects, the USoP can continuously monitor physiological signals, including central blood pressure, heart rate and cardiac output, for as long as 12 h. This result enables continuous autonomous surveillance of deep tissue signals toward the internet-of-medical-things.

Compact angle-resolved metasurface spectrometer.

Light scattered or radiated from a material carries valuable information on the said material. Such information can be uncovered by measuring the light field at different angles and frequencies. However, this technique typically requires a large optical apparatus, hampering the widespread use of angle-resolved spectroscopy beyond the lab. Here we demonstrate compact angle-resolved spectral imaging by combining a tunable metasurface-based spectrometer array and a metalens. With this approach, even with a miniaturized spectrometer footprint of only 4 × 4 µm2, we demonstrate a wavelength accuracy of 0.17 nm, spectral resolution of 0.4 nm and a linear dynamic range of 149 dB. Moreover, our spectrometer has a detection limit of 1.2 fJ, and can be patterned to an array for spectral imaging. Placing such a spectrometer array directly at the back focal plane of a metalens, we achieve an angular resolution of 4.88 × 10-3 rad. Our angle-resolved spectrometers empowered by metalenses can be employed towards enhancing advanced optical imaging and spectral analysis applications.

A platform for integrated spectrometers based on solution-processable semiconductors.

Acquiring real-time spectral information in point-of-care diagnosis, internet-of-thing, and other lab-on-chip applications require spectrometers with hetero-integration capability and miniaturized feature. Compared to conventional semiconductors integrated by heteroepitaxy, solution-processable semiconductors provide a much-flexible integration platform due to their solution-processability, and, therefore, more suitable for the multi-material integrated system. However, solution-processable semiconductors are usually incompatible with the micro-fabrication processes. This work proposes a facile and universal platform to fabricate integrated spectrometers with semiconductor substitutability by unprecedently involving the conjugated mode of the bound states in the continuum (conjugated-BIC) photonics. Specifically, exploiting the conjugated-BIC photonics, which remains unexplored in conventional lasing studies, renders the broadband photodiodes with ultra-narrowband detection ability, detection wavelength tunability, and on-chip integration ability while ensuring the device performance. Spectrometers based on these ultra-narrowband photodiode arrays exhibit high spectral resolution and wide/tunable spectral bandwidth. The fabrication processes are compatible with solution-processable semiconductors photodiodes like perovskites and quantum dots, which can be potentially extended to conventional semiconductors. Signals from the spectrometers directly constitute the incident spectra without being computation-intensive, latency-sensitive, and error-intolerant. As an example, the integrated spectrometers based on perovskite photodiodes are capable of realizing narrowband/broadband light reconstruction and in-situ hyperspectral imaging.

Stretchable ultrasonic arrays for the three-dimensional mapping of the modulus of deep tissue.

Serial assessment of the biomechanical properties of tissues can be used to aid the early detection and management of pathophysiological conditions, to track the evolution of lesions and to evaluate the progress of rehabilitation. However, current methods are invasive, can be used only for short-term measurements, or have insufficient penetration depth or spatial resolution. Here we describe a stretchable ultrasonic array for performing serial non-invasive elastographic measurements of tissues up to 4 cm beneath the skin at a spatial resolution of 0.5 mm. The array conforms to human skin and acoustically couples with it, allowing for accurate elastographic imaging, which we validated via magnetic resonance elastography. We used the device to map three-dimensional distributions of the Young's modulus of tissues ex vivo, to detect microstructural damage in the muscles of volunteers before the onset of soreness and to monitor the dynamic recovery process of muscle injuries during physiotherapies. The technology may facilitate the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting tissue biomechanics.

Ultrahigh-Q Lead Halide Perovskite Microlasers.

Lead halide perovskites have been promising platforms for micro- and nanolasers. However, the fragile nature of perovskites poses an extreme challenge to engineering a cavity boundary and achieving high-quality (Q) modes, severely hindering their practical applications. Here, we combine an etchless bound state in the continuum (BIC) and a chemically synthesized single-crystalline CsPbBr3 microplate to demonstrate on-chip integrated perovskite microlasers with ultrahigh Q factors. By pattering polymer microdisks on CsPbBr3 microplates, we show that record high-Q BIC modes can be formed by destructive interference between different in-plane radiation from whispering gallery modes. Consequently, a record high Q-factor of 1.04 × 105 was achieved in our experiment. The high repeatability and high controllability of such ultrahigh Q BIC microlasers have also been experimentally confirmed. This research provides a new paradigm for perovskite nanophotonics.

A wearable cardiac ultrasound imager.

Continuous imaging of cardiac functions is highly desirable for the assessment of long-term cardiovascular health, detection of acute cardiac dysfunction and clinical management of critically ill or surgical patients1-4. However, conventional non-invasive approaches to image the cardiac function cannot provide continuous measurements owing to device bulkiness5-11, and existing wearable cardiac devices can only capture signals on the skin12-16. Here we report a wearable ultrasonic device for continuous, real-time and direct cardiac function assessment. We introduce innovations in device design and material fabrication that improve the mechanical coupling between the device and human skin, allowing the left ventricle to be examined from different views during motion. We also develop a deep learning model that automatically extracts the left ventricular volume from the continuous image recording, yielding waveforms of key cardiac performance indices such as stroke volume, cardiac output and ejection fraction. This technology enables dynamic wearable monitoring of cardiac performance with substantially improved accuracy in various environments.

Perovskite superlattices with efficient carrier dynamics.

Compared with their three-dimensional (3D) counterparts, low-dimensional metal halide perovskites (2D and quasi-2D; B2An-1MnX3n+1, such as B = R-NH3+, A = HC(NH2)2+, Cs+; M = Pb2+, Sn2+; X = Cl-, Br-, I-) with periodic inorganic-organic structures have shown promising stability and hysteresis-free electrical performance1-6. However, their unique multiple-quantum-well structure limits the device efficiencies because of the grain boundaries and randomly oriented quantum wells in polycrystals7. In single crystals, the carrier transport through the thickness direction is hindered by the layered insulating organic spacers8. Furthermore, the strong quantum confinement from the organic spacers limits the generation and transport of free carriers9,10. Also, lead-free metal halide perovskites have been developed but their device performance is limited by their low crystallinity and structural instability11. Here we report a low-dimensional metal halide perovskite BA2MAn-1SnnI3n+1 (BA, butylammonium; MA, methylammonium; n = 1, 3, 5) superlattice by chemical epitaxy. The inorganic slabs are aligned vertical to the substrate and interconnected in a criss-cross 2D network parallel to the substrate, leading to efficient carrier transport in three dimensions. A lattice-mismatched substrate compresses the organic spacers, which weakens the quantum confinement. The performance of a superlattice solar cell has been certified under the quasi-steady state, showing a stable 12.36% photoelectric conversion efficiency. Moreover, an intraband exciton relaxation process may have yielded an unusually high open-circuit voltage (VOC).

High-performance hysteresis-free perovskite transistors through anion engineering.

Despite the impressive development of metal halide perovskites in diverse optoelectronics, progress on high-performance transistors employing state-of-the-art perovskite channels has been limited due to ion migration and large organic spacer isolation. Herein, we report high-performance hysteresis-free p-channel perovskite thin-film transistors (TFTs) based on methylammonium tin iodide (MASnI3) and rationalise the effects of halide (I/Br/Cl) anion engineering on film quality improvement and tin/iodine vacancy suppression, realising high hole mobilities of 20 cm2 V-1 s-1, current on/off ratios exceeding 107, and threshold voltages of 0 V along with high operational stabilities and reproducibilities. We reveal ion migration has a negligible contribution to the hysteresis of Sn-based perovskite TFTs; instead, minority carrier trapping is the primary cause. Finally, we integrate the perovskite TFTs with commercialised n-channel indium gallium zinc oxide TFTs on a single chip to construct high-gain complementary inverters, facilitating the development of halide perovskite semiconductors for printable electronics and circuits.

Three-dimensional transistor arrays for intra- and inter-cellular recording.

Electrical impulse generation and its conduction within cells or cellular networks are the cornerstone of electrophysiology. However, the advancement of the field is limited by sensing accuracy and the scalability of current recording technologies. Here we describe a scalable platform that enables accurate recording of transmembrane potentials in electrogenic cells. The platform employs a three-dimensional high-performance field-effect transistor array for minimally invasive cellular interfacing that produces faithful recordings, as validated by the gold standard patch clamp. Leveraging the high spatial and temporal resolutions of the field-effect transistors, we measured the intracellular signal conduction velocity of a cardiomyocyte to be 0.182 m s-1, which is about five times the intercellular velocity. We also demonstrate intracellular recordings in cardiac muscle tissue constructs and reveal the signal conduction paths. This platform could provide new capabilities in probing the electrical behaviours of single cells and cellular networks, which carries broad implications for understanding cellular physiology, pathology and cell-cell interactions.

Continuous monitoring of deep-tissue haemodynamics with stretchable ultrasonic phased arrays.

Stretchable wearable devices for the continuous monitoring of physiological signals from deep tissues are constrained by the depth of signal penetration and by difficulties in resolving signals from specific tissues. Here, we report the development and testing of a prototype skin-conformal ultrasonic phased array for the monitoring of haemodynamic signals from tissues up to 14 cm beneath the skin. The device allows for active focusing and steering of ultrasound beams over a range of incident angles so as to target regions of interest. In healthy volunteers, we show that the phased array can be used to monitor Doppler spectra from cardiac tissues, record central blood flow waveforms and estimate cerebral blood supply in real time. Stretchable and conformal skin-worn ultrasonic phased arrays may open up opportunities for wearable diagnostics.

A fabrication process for flexible single-crystal perovskite devices.

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites have electronic and optoelectronic properties that make them appealing in many device applications1-4. Although many approaches focus on polycrystalline materials5-7, single-crystal hybrid perovskites show improved carrier transport and enhanced stability over their polycrystalline counterparts, due to their orientation-dependent transport behaviour8-10 and lower defect concentrations11,12. However, the fabrication of single-crystal hybrid perovskites, and controlling their morphology and composition, are challenging12. Here we report a solution-based lithography-assisted epitaxial-growth-and-transfer method for fabricating single-crystal hybrid perovskites on arbitrary substrates, with precise control of their thickness (from about 600 nanometres to about 100 micrometres), area (continuous thin films up to about 5.5 centimetres by 5.5 centimetres), and composition gradient in the thickness direction (for example, from methylammonium lead iodide, MAPbI3, to MAPb0.5Sn0.5I3). The transferred single-crystal hybrid perovskites are of comparable quality to those directly grown on epitaxial substrates, and are mechanically flexible depending on the thickness. Lead-tin gradient alloying allows the formation of a graded electronic bandgap, which increases the carrier mobility and impedes carrier recombination. Devices based on these single-crystal hybrid perovskites show not only high stability against various degradation factors but also good performance (for example, solar cells based on lead-tin-gradient structures with an average efficiency of 18.77 per cent).

Frequency- and Power-Dependent Photoresponse of a Perovskite Photodetector Down to the Single-Photon Level.

Organometallic halide perovskites attract strong interests for their high photoresponsivity and solar cell efficiency. However, there was no systematic study of their power- and frequency-dependent photoresponsivity. We identified two different power-dependent photoresponse types in methylammonium lead iodide perovskite (MAPbI3) photodetectors. In the first type, the photoresponse remains constant from 5 Hz to 800 MHz. In the second type, absorption of a single photon can generate a persistent photoconductivity of 30 pA under an applied electric field of 2.5 × 104 V/cm. Additional absorbed photons, up to 8, linearly increase the persistent photoconductivity, which saturates with the absorption of more than 10 photons. This is different than single-photon avalanche detectors (SPADs) because the single-photon response is persistent as long as the device is under bias, providing unique opportunities for novel electronic and photonic devices such as analogue memories for neuromorphic computing. We propose an avalanche-like process for iodine ions and estimate that absorption of a single 0.38 aJ photon triggers the motion of 108-9 ions, resulting in accumulations of ions and charged vacancies at the MAPbI3/electrode interfaces to cause the band bending and change of electric material properties. We have made the first observation that single-digit photon absorption can alter the macroscopic electric and optoelectronic properties of a perovskite thin film.

Strain engineering and epitaxial stabilization of halide perovskites.

Strain engineering is a powerful tool with which to enhance semiconductor device performance1,2. Halide perovskites have shown great promise in device applications owing to their remarkable electronic and optoelectronic properties3-5. Although applying strain to halide perovskites has been frequently attempted, including using hydrostatic pressurization6-8, electrostriction9, annealing10-12, van der Waals force13, thermal expansion mismatch14, and heat-induced substrate phase transition15, the controllable and device-compatible strain engineering of halide perovskites by chemical epitaxy remains a challenge, owing to the absence of suitable lattice-mismatched epitaxial substrates. Here we report the strained epitaxial growth of halide perovskite single-crystal thin films on lattice-mismatched halide perovskite substrates. We investigated strain engineering of α-formamidinium lead iodide (α-FAPbI3) using both experimental techniques and theoretical calculations. By tailoring the substrate composition-and therefore its lattice parameter-a compressive strain as high as 2.4 per cent is applied to the epitaxial α-FAPbI3 thin film. We demonstrate that this strain effectively changes the crystal structure, reduces the bandgap and increases the hole mobility of α-FAPbI3. Strained epitaxy is also shown to have a substantial stabilization effect on the α-FAPbI3 phase owing to the synergistic effects of epitaxial stabilization and strain neutralization. As an example, strain engineering is applied to enhance the performance of an α-FAPbI3-based photodetector.

Stretchable ultrasonic transducer arrays for three-dimensional imaging on complex surfaces.

Ultrasonic imaging has been implemented as a powerful tool for noninvasive subsurface inspections of both structural and biological media. Current ultrasound probes are rigid and bulky and cannot readily image through nonplanar three-dimensional (3D) surfaces. However, imaging through these complicated surfaces is vital because stress concentrations at geometrical discontinuities render these surfaces highly prone to defects. This study reports a stretchable ultrasound probe that can conform to and detect nonplanar complex surfaces. The probe consists of a 10 × 10 array of piezoelectric transducers that exploit an "island-bridge" layout with multilayer electrodes, encapsulated by thin and compliant silicone elastomers. The stretchable probe shows excellent electromechanical coupling, minimal cross-talk, and more than 50% stretchability. Its performance is demonstrated by reconstructing defects in 3D space with high spatial resolution through flat, concave, and convex surfaces. The results hold great implications for applications of ultrasound that require imaging through complex surfaces.

Controlled Homoepitaxial Growth of Hybrid Perovskites.

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites have demonstrated tremendous potential for the next-generation electronic and optoelectronic devices due to their remarkable carrier dynamics. Current studies are focusing on polycrystals, since controlled growth of device compatible single crystals is extremely challenging. Here, the first chemical epitaxial growth of single crystal CH3 NH3 PbBr3 with controlled locations, morphologies, and orientations, using combined strategies of advanced microfabrication, homoepitaxy, and low temperature solution method is reported. The growth is found to follow a layer-by-layer model. A light emitting diode array, with each CH3 NH3 PbBr3 crystal as a single pixel, with enhanced quantum efficiencies than its polycrystalline counterparts is demonstrated.

Monitoring of the central blood pressure waveform via a conformal ultrasonic device.

Continuous monitoring of the central-blood-pressure waveform from deeply embedded vessels, such as the carotid artery and jugular vein, has clinical value for the prediction of all-cause cardiovascular mortality. However, existing non-invasive approaches, including photoplethysmography and tonometry, only enable access to the superficial peripheral vasculature. Although current ultrasonic technologies allow non-invasive deep-tissue observation, unstable coupling with the tissue surface resulting from the bulkiness and rigidity of conventional ultrasound probes introduces usability constraints. Here, we describe the design and operation of an ultrasonic device that is conformal to the skin and capable of capturing blood-pressure waveforms at deeply embedded arterial and venous sites. The wearable device is ultrathin (240 µm) and stretchable (with strains up to 60%), and enables the non-invasive, continuous and accurate monitoring of cardiovascular events from multiple body locations, which should facilitate its use in a variety of clinical environments.

An efficient one-pot synthesis of benzo[4,5]imidazo[1,2-a]quinoxalines via copper-catalyzed process.

A copper-catalyzed one-pot process for the construction of benzo[4,5]imidazo[1,2-a]quinoxalines under air is described. Aryl chlorides, aryl bromides, and aryl iodides can be applied to the synthesis of these compounds.