Composition and Metabolic Potential of Fe(III)-Reducing Enrichment Cultures of Methanotrophic ANME-2a Archaea and Associated Bacteria.

The key microbial group involved in anaerobic methane oxidation is anaerobic methanotrophic archaea (ANME). From a terrestrial mud volcano, we enriched a microbial community containing ANME-2a, using methane as an electron donor, Fe(III) oxide (ferrihydrite) as an electron acceptor, and anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate as an electron shuttle. Ferrihydrite reduction led to the formation of a black, highly magnetic precipitate. A significant relative abundance of ANME-2a in batch cultures was observed over five subsequent transfers. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that, in addition to ANME-2a, two bacterial taxa belonging to uncultured Desulfobulbaceae and Anaerolineaceae were constantly present in all enrichments. Metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of ANME-2a contained a complete set of genes for methanogenesis and numerous genes of multiheme c-type cytochromes (MHC), indicating the capability of methanotrophs to transfer electrons to metal oxides or to a bacterial partner. One of the ANME MAGs encoded respiratory arsenate reductase (Arr), suggesting the potential for a direct coupling of methane oxidation with As(V) reduction in the single microorganism. The same MAG also encoded uptake [NiFe] hydrogenase, which is uncommon for ANME-2. The MAG of uncultured Desulfobulbaceae contained genes of dissimilatory sulfate reduction, a Wood-Ljungdahl pathway for autotrophic CO2 fixation, hydrogenases, and 43 MHC. We hypothesize that uncultured Desulfobulbaceae is a bacterial partner of ANME-2a, which mediates extracellular electron transfer to Fe(III) oxide.

Diversity and Activity of Sulfate-Reducing Prokaryotes in Kamchatka Hot Springs.

Microbial communities of the Kamchatka Peninsula terrestrial hot springs were studied using radioisotopic and cultural approaches, as well as by the amplification and sequencing of dsrB and 16S rRNA genes fragments. Radioisotopic experiments with 35S-labeled sulfate showed that microbial communities of the Kamchatka hot springs are actively reducing sulfate. Both the cultivation experiments and the results of dsrB and 16S rRNA genes fragments analyses indicated the presence of microorganisms participating in the reductive part of the sulfur cycle. It was found that sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP) belonging to Desulfobacterota, Nitrospirota and Firmicutes phyla inhabited neutral and slightly acidic hot springs, while bacteria of phylum Thermodesulofobiota preferred moderately acidic hot springs. In high-temperature acidic springs sulfate reduction was mediated by archaea of the phylum Crenarchaeota, chemoorganoheterotrophic representatives of genus Vulcanisaeta being the most probable candidates. The 16S rRNA taxonomic profiling showed that in most of the studied communities SRP was present only as a minor component. Only in one microbial community, the representatives of genus Vulcanisaeta comprised a significant group. Thus, in spite of comparatively low sulfate concentrations in terrestrial hot springs of the Kamchatka, phylogenetically and metabolically diverse groups of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes are operating there coupling carbon and sulfur cycles in these habitats.

Diversity and Metabolic Potential of the Terrestrial Mud Volcano Microbial Community with a High Abundance of Archaea Mediating the Anaerobic Oxidation of Methane.

Terrestrial mud volcanoes (TMVs) are important natural sources of methane emission. The microorganisms inhabiting these environments remain largely unknown. We studied the phylogenetic composition and metabolic potential of the prokaryotic communities of TMVs located in the Taman Peninsula, Russia, using a metagenomic approach. One of the examined sites harbored a unique community with a high abundance of anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea belonging to ANME-3 group (39% of all 16S rRNA gene reads). The high number of ANME-3 archaea was confirmed by qPCR, while the process of anaerobic methane oxidation was demonstrated by radioisotopic experiments. We recovered metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of archaeal and bacterial community members and analyzed their metabolic capabilities. The ANME-3 MAG contained a complete set of genes for methanogenesis as well as of ribosomal RNA and did not encode proteins involved in dissimilatory nitrate or sulfate reduction. The presence of multiheme c-type cytochromes suggests that ANME-3 can couple methane oxidation with the reduction of metal oxides or with the interspecies electron transfer to a bacterial partner. The bacterial members of the community were mainly represented by autotrophic, nitrate-reducing, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, as well as by fermentative microorganisms. This study extends the current knowledge of the phylogenetic and metabolic diversity of prokaryotes in TMVs and provides a first insight into the genomic features of ANME-3 archaea.

Dissimilatory sulfate reduction in the archaeon 'Candidatus Vulcanisaeta moutnovskia' sheds light on the evolution of sulfur metabolism.

Dissimilatory sulfate reduction (DSR)-an important reaction in the biogeochemical sulfur cycle-has been dated to the Palaeoarchaean using geological evidence, but its evolutionary history is poorly understood. Several lineages of bacteria carry out DSR, but in archaea only Archaeoglobus, which acquired DSR genes from bacteria, has been proven to catalyse this reaction. We investigated substantial rates of sulfate reduction in acidic hyperthermal terrestrial springs of the Kamchatka Peninsula and attributed DSR in this environment to Crenarchaeota in the Vulcanisaeta genus. Community profiling, coupled with radioisotope and growth experiments and proteomics, confirmed DSR by 'Candidatus Vulcanisaeta moutnovskia', which has all of the required genes. Other cultivated Thermoproteaceae were briefly reported to use sulfate for respiration but we were unable to detect DSR in these isolates. Phylogenetic studies suggest that DSR is rare in archaea and that it originated in Vulcanisaeta, independent of Archaeoglobus, by separate acquisition of qmoABC genes phylogenetically related to bacterial hdrA genes.

Form III RubisCO-mediated transaldolase variant of the Calvin cycle in a chemolithoautotrophic bacterium.

The Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle assimilates CO2 for the primary production of organic matter in all plants and algae, as well as in some autotrophic bacteria. The key enzyme of the CBB cycle, ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO), is a main determinant of de novo organic matter production on Earth. Of the three carboxylating forms of RubisCO, forms I and II participate in autotrophy, and form III so far has been associated only with nucleotide and nucleoside metabolism. Here, we report that form III RubisCO functions in the CBB cycle in the thermophilic chemolithoautotrophic bacterium Thermodesulfobium acidiphilum, a phylum-level lineage representative. We further show that autotrophic CO2 fixation in T. acidiphilum is accomplished via the transaldolase variant of the CBB cycle, which has not been previously demonstrated experimentally and has been considered unlikely to occur. Thus, this work reveals a distinct form of the key pathway of CO2 fixation.

Diversity of "Ca. Micrarchaeota" in Two Distinct Types of Acidic Environments and Their Associations with Thermoplasmatales.

"Candidatus Micrarchaeota" are widely distributed in acidic environments; however, their cultivability and our understanding of their interactions with potential hosts are very limited. Their habitats were so far attributed with acidic sites, soils, peats, freshwater systems, and hypersaline mats. Using cultivation and culture-independent approaches (16S rRNA gene clonal libraries, high-throughput amplicon sequencing of V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA genes), we surveyed the occurrence of these archaea in geothermal areas on Kamchatka Peninsula and Kunashir Island and assessed their taxonomic diversity in relation with another type of low-pH environment, acid mine drainage stream (Wales, UK). We detected "Ca. Micrarchaeota" in thermophilic heterotrophic enrichment cultures of Kunashir and Kamchatka that appeared as two different phylotypes, namely "Ca. Mancarchaeum acidiphilum"-, and ARMAN-2-related, alongside their potential hosts, Cuniculiplasma spp. and other Thermoplasmatales archaea without defined taxonomic position. These clusters of "Ca. Micrarchaeota" together with three other groups were also present in mesophilic acid mine drainage community. Present work expands our knowledge on the diversity of "Ca. Micrarchaeota" in thermophilic and mesophilic acidic environments, suggests cultivability patterns of acidophilic archaea and establishes potential links between low-abundance species of thermophilic "Ca. Micrarchaeota" and certain Thermoplasmatales, such as Cuniculiplasma spp. in situ.

Respiratory Ammonification of Nitrate Coupled to Anaerobic Oxidation of Elemental Sulfur in Deep-Sea Autotrophic Thermophilic Bacteria.

Respiratory ammonification of nitrate is the microbial process that determines the retention of nitrogen in an ecosystem. To date, sulfur-dependent dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium has been demonstrated only with sulfide as an electron donor. We detected a novel pathway that couples the sulfur and nitrogen cycles. Thermophilic anaerobic bacteria Thermosulfurimonas dismutans and Dissulfuribacter thermophilus, isolated from deep-sea hydrothermal vents, grew autotrophically with elemental sulfur as an electron donor and nitrate as an electron acceptor producing sulfate and ammonium. The genomes of both bacteria contain a gene cluster that encodes a putative nitrate ammonification enzyme system. Nitrate reduction occurs via a Nap-type complex. The reduction of produced nitrite to ammonium does not proceed via the canonical Nrf system because nitrite reductase NrfA is absent in the genomes of both microorganisms. The genome of D. thermophilus encodes a complete sulfate reduction pathway, while the Sox sulfur oxidation system is missing, as shown previously for T. dismutans. Thus, in high-temperature environments, nitrate ammonification with elemental sulfur may represent an unrecognized route of primary biomass production. Moreover, the anaerobic oxidation of sulfur compounds coupled to growth has not previously been demonstrated for the members of Thermodesulfobacteria or Deltaproteobacteria, which were considered exclusively as participants of the reductive branch of the sulfur cycle.

Calorithrix insularis gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel representative of the phylum Calditrichaeota.

A moderately thermophilic, anaerobic bacterium designated as strain KRT was isolated from a shallow-water submarine hydrothermal vent (Kunashir Island, Southern Kurils, Russia). Cells of strain KRT were thin (0.2-0.3 µm), flexible, motile, Gram-stain-negative rods of variable length. Optimal growth conditions were pH 6.6, 55 °C and 1-3 % (w/v) NaCl. Strain KRT was able to ferment a wide range of proteinaceous substrates, pyruvate, and mono-, di- and polysaccharides. The best growth occurred with proteinaceous compounds. Nitrate significantly stimulated the growth on proteinaceous substrates decreasing H2 formation, ammonium being the main product of nitrate reduction. Strain KRT did not need the presence of a reducing agent in the medium and tolerated the presence of oxygen in the gas phase up to 3 % (v/v). In the presence of nitrate, aerotolerance of isolate KRT was enhanced up to 6-8 % O2 (v/v). Strain KRT was able to grow chemolithoheterotrophically, oxidizing H2 and reducing nitrate to ammonium. Yeast extract (0.05 g l-1) was required for growth. The G+C content of the genomic DNA of strain KRT was 47.3 mol%. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis placed isolate KRT in the phylum Calditrichaeota where it represented a novel species of a new genus, for which the name Calorithrix insularis gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain of Calorithrix insularis is KRT (=DSM 101605T=VKM B-3022T).

Microbial life in Bourlyashchy, the hottest thermal pool of Uzon Caldera, Kamchatka.

Bourlyashchy is the largest and hottest pool in the Uzon Caldera, located in the territory of Kronotsky Nature Reserve, Kamchatka, Russia, with sediment surface temperatures at the margins ranging from 86 to 97 °C, and pH from 6.0 to 7.0. The microbial communities of the pool water and sediments were studied comprehensively from 2005 to 2014. Radioisotopic tracer studies revealed the processes of inorganic carbon assimilation, sulfate reduction, lithotrophic methanogenesis and potentially very active process of acetate oxidation to CO2. The total number of microbial cells in water was different in different years ranging from 5.2 to 7.0 × 10(6); in sediments, it changed from year to year between 6.3 × 10(6) and 1.75 × 10(8), increasing with a decrease in temperature. FISH with Archaea- and Bacteria-specific probes showed that the share of Bacteria differed with year, changing from 34 to 71%. According to 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing data, lithoautotrophs (Aquificales and Thermoproteales) predominated in water samples, while in sediments they shared the niche with organotrophic Crenarchaeota, Korarchaeota, and bacteria of the genus Caldimicrobium (phylum Thermodesulfobacteria). The majority of organisms in water belonged to cultivated orders of prokaryotes; the only large uncultured group was that representing a novel order in class Thermoprotei. In sediments, unclassified Aquificeae comprised a significant part of the bacterial population. Thus, we showed that the hottest of the terrestrial hot pools studied contains numerous and active microbial populations where Bacteria represent a significant part of the microbial community, and planktonic and sediment populations differ in both composition and function.

Detection of putatively thermophilic anaerobic methanotrophs in diffuse hydrothermal vent fluids.

The anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) is carried out by a globally distributed group of uncultivated Euryarchaeota, the anaerobic methanotrophic arachaea (ANME). In this work, we used G+C analysis of 16S rRNA genes to identify a putatively thermophilic ANME group and applied newly designed primers to study its distribution in low-temperature diffuse vent fluids from deep-sea hydrothermal vents. We found that the G+C content of the 16S rRNA genes (P(GC)) is significantly higher in the ANME-1GBa group than in other ANME groups. Based on the positive correlation between the P(GC) and optimal growth temperatures (T(opt)) of archaea, we hypothesize that the ANME-1GBa group is adapted to thrive at high temperatures. We designed specific 16S rRNA gene-targeted primers for the ANME-1 cluster to detect all phylogenetic groups within this cluster, including the deeply branching ANME-1GBa group. The primers were successfully tested both in silico and in experiments with sediment samples where ANME-1 phylotypes had previously been detected. The primers were further used to screen for the ANME-1 microorganisms in diffuse vent fluid samples from deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the Pacific Ocean, and sequences belonging to the ANME-1 cluster were detected in four individual vents. Phylotypes belonging to the ANME-1GBa group dominated in clone libraries from three of these vents. Our findings provide evidence of existence of a putatively extremely thermophilic group of methanotrophic archaea that occur in geographically and geologically distinct marine hydrothermal habitats.

Characterization of technetium(vII) reduction by cell suspensions of thermophilic bacteria and archaea.

Washed cell suspensions of the anaerobic hyperthermophilic archaea Thermococcus pacificus and Thermoproteus uzoniensis and the anaerobic thermophilic gram-positive bacteria Thermoterrabacterium ferrireducens and Tepidibacter thalassicus reduced technetium [(99)Tc(VII)], supplied as soluble pertechnetate with molecular hydrogen as an electron donor, forming highly insoluble Tc(IV)-containing grayish-black precipitate. Apart from molecular hydrogen, T. ferrireducens reduced Tc(VII) with lactate, glycerol, and yeast extract as electron donors, and T. thalassicus reduced it with peptone. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis of cell suspensions of T. ferrireducens showed the presence of Tc-containing particles attached to the surfaces of non-lysed cells. This is the first report on the reduction in Tc(VII) by thermophilic microorganisms of the domain Bacteria and by archaea of the phylum Euryarchaeota.