Skin anti-photoaging properties of ginsenoside Rh2 epimers in UV-B-irradiated human keratinocyte cells.

Ginseng, one of the most widely used herbal medicines, has a wide range of therapeutic and pharmacological applications. Ginsenosides are the major bioactive ingredients of ginseng, which are responsible for various pharmacological activities of ginseng. Ginsenoside Rh2, known as an antitumour ginsenoside, exists as two different stereoisomeric forms, 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 [20(S)-Rh2] and 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 [20(R)-Rh2]. This work aimed to assess and compare skin anti-photoaging activities of 20(S)-Rh2 and 20(R)-Rh2 in UV-B-irradiated HaCat cells. 20(S)-Rh2, but not 20(R)-Rh2, was able to suppress UV-B-induced ROS production in HaCat cells. Both stereoisomeric forms could not modulate cellular survival and NO level in UV-B-irradiated HaCat cells. Both 20(S)-Rh2 and 20(R)-Rh2 exhibited suppressive effects on UV-B-induced MMP-2 activity and expression in HaCat cells. In brief, the two stereoisomers of ginsenoside Rh2, 20(S)-Rh2 and 20(R)-Rh2, possess skin anti-photoaging effects but possibly in different fashions.

Stereoselective skin anti-photoaging properties of ginsenoside Rg3 in UV-B-irradiated keratinocytes.

Ginsenosides are major bioactive constituents that are responsible for the diverse pharmacological activities of ginseng. This work aimed to assess the skin anti-photoaging activities of the two stereoisomeric forms of ginsenoside Rg3, 20(S)-Rg3 and 20(R)-Rg3. When the two Rg3 stereoisomers were added to cultured human keratinocyte HaCaT cells prior to irradiation with 70 mJ/cm(2) UV-B, 20(S)-Rg3, but not 20(R)-Rg3, decreased the UV-B-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in a concentration-dependent manner, as detected by both fluorometric and confocal microscopic analyses. Likewise, 20(S)-Rg3, but not 20(R)-Rg3, decreased the UV-B-induced ROS levels in human dermal fibroblast cells. Both stereoisomers were unable to modulate the nitric oxide levels in HaCaT cells under UV-B irradiation, and induced no cytotoxicity in cultured keratinocytes and fibroblasts. 20(S)-Rg3 suppressed the UV-B-induced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 activities in HaCaT cells. Taken together, these results indicate that 20(S)-Rg3 possesses both ROS-scavenging and MMP-2 inhibitory activities, while 20(R)-Rg3 possesses neither activity. These findings imply that ginsenoside Rg3 stereoselectively demonstrates skin anti-photoaging activities.

Two-step process using immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis for ethanol production from Ulva pertusa Kjellman hydrolysate.

We established a two-step production process using immobilized S. cerevisiae and P. stipitis yeast to produce ethanol from seaweed (U. pertusa Kjellman) hydrolysate. The process was designed to completely consume both glucose and xylose. In particular, the yeasts were immobilized using DEAE-corncob and DEAE-cotton, respectively. The first step of the process included a continuous column reactor using immobilized S. cerevisiae, and the second step included a repeated-batch reactor using immobilized P. stipitis. It was verified that the glucose and xylose in 20 L of medium containing the U. pertusa Kjellman hydrolysate was converted completely to about 5.0 g/l ethanol through the two-step process, in which the overall ethanol yield from total reducing sugar was 0.37 and the volumetric ethanol productivity was 0.126 g/ l/h. The volumetric ethanol productivity of the two-step process was about 2.7 times greater than that when P. stipitis was used alone for ethanol production from U. pertusa Kjellman hydrolysate. In addition, the overall ethanol yield from glucose and xylose was superior to that when P. stipitis was used alone for ethanol production. This two-step process will not only contribute to the development of an integrated process for ethanol production from glucose and xylose-containing biomass hydrolysates, but could also be used as an alternative method for ethanol production.

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory properties of 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 in cultured macrophages and keratinocytes.

OBJECTIVES: This work aimed to assess the matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory and related pharmacological actions of 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 (20(R)-Rh2) in cultured macrophages and keratinocytes. METHODS: In-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of 20(R)-Rh2 was evaluated by analysing nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) contents in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Its antioxidant activity was determined by measuring the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the macrophage and keratinocyte cells. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and -2 (MMP-2) activity in the culture medium was detected using zymography. KEY FINDINGS: 20(R)-Rh2 was able to suppress NO, PGE2, ROS and pro-matrix metalloproteinase-9 (pro-MMP-9) levels that were enhanced in the LPS-stimulated murine RAW264.7 macrophage cells. 20(R)-Rh2 also exhibited inhibitory effects on the level of ROS and the activity of MMP-9 and -2 in human HaCat keratinocyte cells without stimulant exposure. 20(R)-Rh2 could suppress the gelatinolytic activity of MMP-9 enhanced by tumour necrosis factor-α in the keratinocytes. CONCLUSIONS: 20(R)-Rh2, a minor stereoisomer of ginsenoside Rh2, possesses matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activity.

Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory activities of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 in cultured mammalian cell lines.

Ginsenoside Rg3 is one of ginsenosides that are the well-known bioactive principles of Panax ginseng. Among the two stereoisomeric forms of Rg3, 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 [20(S)-Rg3] is predominant. 20(S)-Rg3 is capable of suppressing the nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) productions induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 macrophage cells in a concentration-dependent manner. In the same stimulated macrophages, 20(S)-Rg3 was able to suppress matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activity and suppress cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. It suppressed the production of some proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6, and the cell mobility enhanced by LPS in the macrophage cells. 20(S)-Rg3 displayed suppressive effect on the ROS level but not on the NO level, and down-regulating effect on MMP-9 but not on MMP-2 in non-stimulated HaCat keratinocytes. 20(S)-Rg3 also exhibited suppressive effect on the MMP-9 gelatinolytic activity enhanced in the HaCat keratinocytes stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), one of the major proinflammatory cytokines. However, 20(S)-Rg3 was not able to modulate the NO level even in the presence of TNF-α. Taken together, anti-inflammatory and related antioxidative and MMP-9 inhibitory activities of 20(S)-Rg3, the major stereoisomeric form of ginsenoside Rg3, are confirmed in macrophage and keratinocyte cell lines.