Structure-guided protein engineering of human cathepsin L for efficient collagenolytic activity.

Engineering precise substrate specificity of proteases advances the potential to use them in biotechnological and therapeutic applications. Collagen degradation, a physiological process mediated by collagenases, is an integral part of extracellular matrix remodeling and when uncontrolled, implicated in different pathological conditions. Lysosomal cathepsin-K cleaves triple helical collagen fiber, whereas cathepsin-L cannot do so. In this study, we have imparted collagenolytic property to cathepsin-L, by systematically engineering proline-specificity and glycosaminoglycans (GAG)-binding surface in the protease. The proline-specific mutant shows high specificity for prolyl-peptidic substrate but is incapable of cleaving collagen. Engineering a GAG-binding surface on the proline-specific mutant enabled it to degrade type-I collagen in the presence of chondroitin-4-sulfate (C4-S). We also present the crystal structures of proline-specific (1.4 Å) and collagen-specific (1.8 Å) mutants. Finally docking studies with prolyl-peptidic substrate (Ala-Gly-Pro-Arg-Ala) at the active site and a C4-S molecule at the GAG-binding site enable us to identify key structural features responsible for collagenolytic activity of cysteine cathepsins.

Mutation in the Pro-Peptide Region of a Cysteine Protease Leads to Altered Activity and Specificity-A Structural and Biochemical Approach.

Papain-like proteases contain an N-terminal pro-peptide in their zymogen form that is important for correct folding and spatio-temporal regulation of the proteolytic activity of these proteases. Catalytic removal of the pro-peptide is required for the protease to become active. In this study, we have generated three different mutants of papain (I86F, I86L and I86A) by replacing the residue I86 in its pro-peptide region, which blocks the specificity determining S2-subsite of the catalytic cleft of the protease in its zymogen form with a view to investigate the effect of mutation on the catalytic activity of the protease. Steady-state enzyme kinetic analyses of the corresponding mutant proteases with specific peptide substrates show significant alteration of substrate specificity-I86F and I86L have 2.7 and 29.1 times higher kcat/Km values compared to the wild-type against substrates having Phe and Leu at P2 position, respectively, while I86A shows lower catalytic activity against majority of the substrates tested. Far-UV CD scan and molecular mass analyses of the mature form of the mutant proteases reveal similar CD spectra and intact masses to that of the wild-type. Crystal structures of zymogens of I86F and I86L mutants suggest that subtle reorganization of active site residues, including water, upon binding of the pro-peptide may allow the enzyme to achieve discriminatory substrate selectivity and catalytic efficiency. However, accurate and reliable predictions on alteration of substrate specificity require atomic resolution structure of the catalytic domain after zymogen activation, which remains a challenging task. In this study we demonstrate that through single amino acid substitution in pro-peptide, it is possible to modify the substrate specificity of papain and hence the pro-peptide of a protease can also be a useful target for altering its catalytic activity/specificity.

The structure of a thermostable mutant of pro-papain reveals its activation mechanism.

Papain is the archetype of a broad class of cysteine proteases (clan C1A) that contain a pro-peptide in the zymogen form which is required for correct folding and spatio-temporal regulation of proteolytic activity in the initial stages after expression. This study reports the X-ray structure of the zymogen of a thermostable mutant of papain at 2.6 Å resolution. The overall structure, in particular that of the mature part of the protease, is similar to those of other members of the family. The structure provides an explanation for the molecular basis of the maintenance of latency of the proteolytic activity of the zymogen by its pro-segment at neutral pH. The structural analysis, together with biochemical and biophysical studies, demonstrated that the pro-segment of the zymogen undergoes a rearrangement in the form of a structural loosening at acidic pH which triggers the proteolytic activation cascade. This study further explains the bimolecular stepwise autocatalytic activation mechanism by limited proteolysis of the zymogen of papain at the molecular level. The possible factors responsible for the higher thermal stability of the papain mutant have also been analyzed.

C-Terminal extension of a plant cysteine protease modulates proteolytic activity through a partial inhibitory mechanism.

The amino acid sequence of ervatamin-C, a thermostable cysteine protease from a tropical plant, revealed an additional 24-amino-acid extension at its C-terminus (CT). The role of this extension peptide in zymogen activation, catalytic activity, folding and stability of the protease is reported. For this study, we expressed two recombinant forms of the protease in Escherichia coli, one retaining the CT-extension and the other with it truncated. The enzyme with the extension shows autocatalytic zymogen activation at a higher pH of 8.0, whereas deletion of the extension results in a more active form of the enzyme. This CT-extension was not found to be cleaved during autocatalysis or by limited proteolysis by different external proteases. Molecular modeling and simulation studies revealed that the CT-extension blocks some of the substrate-binding unprimed subsites including the specificity-determining subsite (S2) of the enzyme and thereby partially occludes accessibility of the substrates to the active site, which also corroborates the experimental observations. The CT-extension in the model structure shows tight packing with the catalytic domain of the enzyme, mediated by strong hydrophobic and H-bond interactions, thus restricting accessibility of its cleavage sites to the protease itself or to the external proteases. Kinetic stability analyses (T(50) and t(1/2) ) and refolding experiments show similar thermal stability and refolding efficiency for both forms. These data suggest that the CT-extension has an inhibitory role in the proteolytic activity of ervatamin-C but does not have a major role either in stabilizing the enzyme or in its folding mechanism.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of the precursor protein of a thermostable variant of papain.

The crystallization of a recombinant thermostable variant of pro-papain has been carried out. The mutant pro-enzyme was expressed in Escherichia coli as inclusion bodies, refolded, purified and crystallized. The crystals belonged to space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 42.9, b = 74.8, c = 116.5 Å, ß = 93.0°, and diffracted to 2.6 Å resolution using synchrotron radiation. Assuming the presence of two molecules in the asymmetric unit, the calculated Matthews coefficient is 2.28 Å(3) Da(-1), corresponding to a solvent content of 46%. Initial attempts to solve the structure using molecular-replacement techniques were successful.

Improving thermostability of papain through structure-based protein engineering.

Papain is a plant cysteine protease of industrial importance having a two-domain structure with its catalytic cleft located at the domain interface. A structure-based rational design approach has been used to improve the thermostability of papain, without perturbing its enzymatic activity, by introducing three mutations at its interdomain region. A thermostable homologue in papain family, Ervatamin C, has been used as a template for this purpose. A single (K174R), a double (K174RV32S) and a triple (K174RV32SG36S) mutant of papain have been generated, of which the triple mutant shows maximum thermostability with the half-life (t(1/2)) extended by 94 min at 60 degrees C and 45 min at 65 degrees C compared to the wild type (WT). The temperature of maximum enzymatic activity (T(max)) and 50% maximal activity (T(50)) for the triple mutant increased by 15 and 4 degrees C, respectively. Moreover, the triple mutant exhibits a faster inactivation rate beyond T(max) which may be a desirable feature for an industrial enzyme. The values of t(1/2) and T(max) for the double mutant lie between those of the WT and the triple mutant. The single mutant however turns out to be unstable for biochemical characterization. These results have been substantiated by molecular modeling studies which also indicate highest stability for the triple mutant based on higher number of interdomain H-bonds/salt-bridges, less interdomain flexibility and lower stability free-energy compared to the WT. In silico studies also explain the unstable behavior of the single mutant.

Production and recovery of recombinant propapain with high yield.

Papain (EC 3.4.22.2), the archetypal cysteine protease of C1 family, is of considerable commercial significance. In order to obtain substantial quantities of active papain, the DNA coding for propapain, the papain precursor, has been cloned and expressed at a high level in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) transformed with two T7 promoter based pET expression vectors - pET30 Ek/LIC and pET28a(+) each containing the propapain gene. In both cases, recombinant propapain was expressed as an insoluble His-tagged fusion protein, which was solubilized, and purified by nickel chelation affinity chromatography under denaturing conditions. By systematic variation of parameters influencing the folding, disulfide bond formation and prevention of aggregate formation, a straightforward refolding procedure, based on dilution method, has been designed. This refolded protein was subjected to size exclusion chromatography to remove impurities and around 400mg of properly refolded propapain was obtained from 1L of bacterial culture. The expressed protein was further verified by Western blot analysis by cross-reacting it with a polyclonal anti-papain antibody and the proteolytic activity was confirmed by gelatin SDS-PAGE. This refolded propapain could be converted to mature active papain by autocatalytic processing at low pH and the recombinant papain so obtained has a specific activity closely similar to the native papain. This is a simple and efficient expression and purification procedure to obtain a yield of active papain, which is the highest reported so far for any recombinant plant cysteine protease.

Crystal structures of HbA2 and HbE and modeling of hemoglobin delta 4: interpretation of the thermal stability and the antisickling effect of HbA2 and identification of the ferrocyanide binding site in Hb.

Hemoglobin A(2) (alpha(2)delta(2)) is an important hemoglobin variant which is a minor component (2-3%) in the circulating red blood cells, and its elevated concentration in beta-thalassemia is a useful clinical diagnostic. In beta-thalassemia major, where there is beta-chain production failure, HbA(2) acts as the predominant oxygen deliverer. HbA(2) has two more important features. (1) It is more resistant to thermal denaturation than HbA, and (2) it inhibits the polymerization of deoxy sickle hemoglobin (HbS). Hemoglobin E (E26K(beta)), formed as a result of the splice site mutation on exon 1 of the beta-globin gene, is another important hemoglobin variant which is known to be unstable at high temperatures. Both heterozygous HbE (HbAE) and homozygous HbE (HbEE) are benign disorders, but when HbE combines with beta-thalassemia, it causes E/beta-thalassemia which has severe clinical consequences. In this paper, we present the crystal structures of HbA(2) and HbE at 2.20 and 1.74 A resolution, respectively, in their R2 states, which have been used here to provide the probable explanations of the thermal stability and instability of HbA(2) and HbE. Using the coordinates of R2 state HbA(2), we modeled the structure of T state HbA(2) which allowed us to address the structural basis of the antisickling property of HbA(2). Using the coordinates of the delta-chain of HbA(2) (R2 state), we also modeled the structure of hemoglobin homotetramer delta(4) that occurs in the case of rare HbH disease. From the differences in intersubunit contacts among beta(4), gamma(4), and delta(4), we formed a hypothesis regarding the possible tetramerization pathway of delta(4). The crystal structure of a ferrocyanide-bound HbA(2) at 1.88 A resolution is also presented here, which throws light on the location and the mode of binding of ferrocyanide anion with hemoglobin, predominantly using the residues involved in DPG binding. The pH dependence of ferrocyanide binding with hemoglobin has also been investigated.

Tertiary structural changes associated with iron binding and release in hen serum transferrin: a crystallographic and spectroscopic study.

The iron binding and release of serum transferrin are pH-dependent and accompanied by a conformational change between the iron-bound (holo-) and iron-free (apo-) forms. We have determined the crystal structure of apo-hen serum transferrin (hAST) at 3.5A resolution, which is the first reported structure to date of any full molecule of an apo-serum transferrin and studied its pH-dependent iron release by UV-vis absorption and near UV-CD spectroscopy. The crystal structure of hAST shows that both the lobes adopt an open conformation and the relative orientations of the domains are different from those of apo-human serum transferrin and human apolactoferrin but similar to that of hen apo-ovotransferrin. Spectroscopic analysis reveals that in hen serum transferrin, release of the first iron starts at a pH approximately 6.5 and continues over a broad pH range (6.5-5.2). The complete release of the iron, however, occurs at pH approximately 4.0. The near UV-CD spectra show alterations in the microenvironment of the aromatic residues surrounding the iron-binding sites.

Structure of diferric hen serum transferrin at 2.8 A resolution.

Hen serum transferrin in its diferric form (hST) has been isolated, purified and the three-dimensional structure determined by X-ray crystallography at 2.8 A resolution. The final refined structure of hST, comprising 5232 protein atoms, two Fe(3+) cations, two CO(3)(2-) anions, 54 water molecules and one fucose moiety, has an R factor of 21.5% and an R(free) of 26.9% for all data. The structure has been compared with the three-dimensional structure of hen ovotransferrin (hOT) and also with structures of some other transferrins, viz. rabbit serum transferrin (rST) and human lactoferrin (hLF). The overall conformation of the hST molecule is essentially the same as that of other transferrins. However, the relative orientation of the two lobes, which is related to the species-specific receptor-recognition property of transferrins, has been found to be different in hST from that in hOT, rST and hLF. On the basis of superposition of the N lobes, rotations of 5.8, 16.9 and 11.3 degrees are required to bring the C lobes of hOT, rST and hLF, respectively, into coincidence with that of hST. A number of additional hydrogen bonds between the two domains in the N and C lobes have been identified in the structure of hST compared with that of hOT, which indicate a greater compactness of the lobes of hST than those of hOT. Being products of the same gene, hST and hOT have 100% sequence identity and differ only in the attached carbohydrate moiety. On the other hand, despite having similar functions, hST and rST have only 51% sequence similarity. However, the nature of the interdomain interactions of hST are closer to rST than to hOT. A putative carbohydrate-binding site has been identified in the N lobe of hST at Asn52 and a fucose molecule could be modelled at the site. The variations in interdomain and interlobe interactions in hST, together with altered lobe orientation with respect to hOT, rST and hLF, which are the representatives of the other subfamily of transferrins, are discussed.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray structural studies of hemoglobin A2 and hemoglobin E, isolated from the blood samples of beta-thalassemic patients.

Hemoglobin A(2) (alpha(2)delta(2)), a minor (2-3%) component of circulating red blood cells, acts as an anti-sickling agent and its elevated concentration in beta-thalassemia is a useful clinical diagnostic. In beta-thalassemia major, where there is a failure of beta-chain production, HbA(2) acts as the predominant oxygen delivery mechanism. Hemoglobin E, is another common abnormal hemoglobin, caused by splice site mutation in exon 1 of beta globin gene, when combines with beta-thalassemia, causes severe microcytic anemia. The purification, crystallization, and preliminary structural studies of HbA(2) and HbE are reported here. HbA(2) and HbE are purified by cation exchange column chromatography in presence of KCN from the blood samples of individuals suffering from beta-thalassemia minor and E beta-thalassemia. X-ray diffraction data of HbA(2) and HbE were collected upto 2.1 and 1.73 A, respectively. HbA(2) crystallized in space group P2(1) with unit cell parameters a=54.33 A, b=83.73 A, c=62.87 A, and beta=99.80 degrees whereas HbE crystallized in space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) with unit cell parameters a=60.89 A, b=95.81 A, and c=99.08 A. Asymmetric unit in each case contains one Hb tetramer in R(2) state.

Purification and preliminary X-ray studies on hen serotransferrin in apo- and holo-forms.

Serum transferrins are monomeric glycoproteins with a molecular mass of around 80 kDa, that transport iron to cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Although both serum transferrins (STfs) and ovotransferrins (OTfs) are derived from the same gene in aves, the ovotransferrins do not transport iron in vivo. Crystal structures of OTf have been solved, in contrast no three-dimensional structure of avian STf have been determined as yet. Here we report the purification, crystallization, and preliminary crystallographic studies of the hen STf both in apo- (iron free) and holo- (iron loaded) forms. The hen STf has been purified to homogeneity by hydrophobic interaction chromatography. Both the apo- and holo-forms were crystallized by hanging drop vapor diffusion method at 277 K. The apo-crystals diffract to a resolution of 3.0 A and belong to the space group P4(3)2(1)2 with unit cell parameters a=b=90.5 and c=177.9 A. The holo-crystals diffract to a resolution of 2.8 A and belong to space group P2(1) with a=72.8, b=59.6, c=88.2 A, and beta=95.7 degrees.