Direct translation of incoming retroviral genomes.

Viruses that carry a positive-sense, single-stranded (+ssRNA) RNA translate their genomes soon after entering the host cell to produce viral proteins, with the exception of retroviruses. A distinguishing feature of retroviruses is reverse transcription, where the +ssRNA genome serves as a template to synthesize a double-stranded DNA copy that subsequently integrates into the host genome. As retroviral RNAs are produced by the host cell transcriptional machinery and are largely indistinguishable from cellular mRNAs, we investigated the potential of incoming retroviral genomes to directly express proteins. Here we show through multiple, complementary methods that retroviral genomes are translated after entry. Our findings challenge the notion that retroviruses require reverse transcription to produce viral proteins. Synthesis of retroviral proteins in the absence of productive infection has significant implications for basic retrovirology, immune responses and gene therapy applications.

Vpx enhances innate immune responses independently of SAMHD1 during HIV-1 infection.

BACKGROUND: The genomes of HIV-2 and some SIV strains contain the accessory gene vpx, which carries out several functions during infection, including the downregulation of SAMHD1. Vpx is also commonly used in experiments to increase HIV-1 infection efficiency in myeloid cells, particularly in studies that investigate the activation of antiviral pathways. However, the potential effects of Vpx on cellular innate immune signaling is not completely understood. We investigated whether and how Vpx affects ISG responses in monocytic cell lines and MDMs during HIV-1 infection. RESULTS: HIV-1 infection at excessively high virus doses can induce ISG activation, although at the expense of high levels of cell death. At equal infection levels, the ISG response is potentiated by the presence of Vpx and requires the initiation of reverse transcription. The interaction of Vpx with the DCAF1 adaptor protein is important for the enhanced response, implicating Vpx-mediated degradation of a host factor. Cells lacking SAMHD1 show similarly augmented responses, suggesting an effect that is independent of SAMHD1 degradation. Overcoming SAMHD1 restriction in MDMs to reach equal infection levels with viruses containing and lacking Vpx reveals a novel function of Vpx in elevating innate immune responses. CONCLUSIONS: Vpx likely has as yet undefined roles in infected cells. Our results demonstrate that Vpx enhances ISG responses in myeloid cell lines and primary cells independently of its ability to degrade SAMHD1. These findings have implications for innate immunity studies in myeloid cells that use Vpx delivery with HIV-1 infection.

HIV-1 Is a Poor Inducer of Innate Immune Responses.

Effective host immune responses against viral infection rely on the detection of the virus, activation of downstream signaling pathways, and the secretion of interferons (IFNs) and other cytokines. Many viruses can potently stimulate these responses, whereas the immune response against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) remains relatively less well characterized. Here we show that HIV-1 infection with reporter viruses does not activate sensing pathways in cell lines and primary cells that are otherwise responsive to foreign nucleic acids. After entry into cells, reverse transcription and reporter expression occur without the virus ever being detected by cellular sensors or stimulating an interferon response. Using multiple methods, including the use of reporter cell lines for type I IFN and NF-κB pathway activation, quantifying mRNA levels for IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), and assaying for markers of innate immune activation, we show that single-round pseudotyped HIV-1-based reporter viruses fail to induce innate immune responses.IMPORTANCE Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) continues to be a major burden to human health worldwide. How infected cells recognize and respond to HIV-1 infection is important in order to better understand the biology of the virus and the cellular pathways activated upon infection and to identify potential targets that interfere with viral replication. In this study, we investigated innate immune responses of different cell types following infection with single-cycle (replication-defective) HIV-1 reporter virus. We report that infection with a commonly used HIV-1 strain (lacking the env, nef, and vpr genes) does not measurably activate cellular defense mechanisms and that the virus is able to avoid recognition by cellular sensors.

NP220 mediates silencing of unintegrated retroviral DNA.

The entry of foreign DNA into many mammalian cell types triggers the innate immune system, a complex set of responses to prevent infection by pathogens. One aspect of the response is the potent epigenetic silencing of incoming viral DNAs1, including the extrachromosomal DNAs that are formed immediately after infection by retroviruses. These unintegrated viral DNAs are very poorly transcribed in all cells, even in permissive cells, in contrast to the robust expression that is observed after viral integration2-5. The factors that are responsible for this low expression have not yet been identified. Here we performed a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen for genes that are required for silencing an integrase-deficient MLV-GFP reporter virus to explore the mechanisms responsible for repression of unintegrated viral DNAs in human cells. Our screen identified the DNA-binding protein NP220, the three proteins (MPP8, TASOR and PPHLN1) that comprise the HUSH complex-which silences proviruses in heterochromatin6 and retrotransposons7,8-the histone methyltransferase SETDB1, and other host factors that are required for silencing. Further tests by chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that NP220 is the key protein that recruits the HUSH complex, SETDB1 and the histone deacetylases HDAC1 and HDAC4 to silence the unintegrated retroviral DNA. Knockout of NP220 accelerates the replication of retroviruses. These experiments identify the molecular machinery that silences extrachromosomal retroviral DNA.

Cyclin-dependent kinase activity is required for type I interferon production.

Recognition of nucleic acids results in the production of type I IFNs, which activate the JAK/STAT pathway and promote the expression of IFN-stimulated genes. In a search for modulators of this pathway, we discovered an unexpected requirement for cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) in the production of type I IFN following nucleic acid sensing and virus infection. Inhibition of CDK activity or knockdown of CDK levels leads to a striking block in STAT activation and IFN-stimulated gene expression. CDKs are not required for the initial nucleic acid sensing leading to IFN-ß mRNA induction, nor for the response to exogenous IFN-α/ß, but are critical for IFN-ß release into culture supernatants, suggesting a posttranscriptional role for CDKs in type I IFN production. In the absence of CDK activity, we demonstrate a translational block specific for IFN-ß, in which IFN-ß mRNA is removed from the actively translating polysomes, while the distribution of other cellular mRNAs or global translation rates are unaffected. Our findings reveal a critical role for CDKs in the translation of IFN-ß.

Characterization of interaction between Trim28 and YY1 in silencing proviral DNA of Moloney murine leukemia virus.

Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (M-MLV) proviral DNA is transcriptionally silenced in embryonic cells by a large repressor complex tethered to the provirus by two sequence-specific DNA binding proteins, ZFP809 and YY1. A central component of the complex is Trim28, a scaffold protein that regulates many target genes involved in cell cycle progression, DNA damage responses, and viral gene expression. The silencing activity of Trim28, and its interactions with corepressors are often regulated by post-translational modifications such as sumoylation and phosphorylation. We defined the interaction domains of Trim28 and YY1, and investigated the role of sumoylation and phosphorylation of Trim28 in mediating M-MLV silencing. The RBCC domain of Trim28 was sufficient for interaction with YY1, and acidic region 1 and zinc fingers of YY1 were necessary and sufficient for its interaction with Trim28. Additionally, we found that residue K779 was critical for Trim28-mediated silencing of M-MLV in embryonic cells.

Generation of multiple replication-competent retroviruses through recombination between PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2.

We previously identified two novel endogenous murine leukemia virus proviruses, PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2, and showed that they most likely recombined during xenograft passaging of a human prostate tumor in mice to generate xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV). To determine the recombination potential of PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2, we examined the generation of replication-competent retroviruses (RCRs) over time in a cell culture system. We observed that either virus alone was noninfectious and the RNA transcripts of the viruses were undetectable in the blood and spleen of nude mice that carry them. To determine their potential to generate RCRs through recombination, we transfected PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2 into 293T cells and used the virus produced to infect fresh cells; the presence of reverse transcriptase activity at 10 days postinfection indicated the presence of RCRs. Population sequencing of proviral DNA indicated that all RCRs contained the gag and 5' half of pol from PreXMRV-2 and the long terminal repeat, 3' half of pol (including integrase), and env from PreXMRV-1. All crossovers were within sequences of at least 9 identical nucleotides, and crossovers within each of two selected recombination zones of 415 nucleotides (nt) in the 5' untranslated region and 982 nt in pol were required to generate RCRs. A recombinant with the same genotype as XMRV was not detected, and our analysis indicates that the probability of generating an identical RCR is vanishingly small. In addition, the studies indicate that the process of RCR formation is primarily driven by selection for viable cis and trans elements from the parental proviruses.

Recombinant origin, contamination, and de-discovery of XMRV.

The discovery and de-discovery of the xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) has been a tumultuous roller-coaster ride for scientists and patients. The initial associations of XMRV with chronic fatigue syndrome and prostate cancer, while providing much hope and optimism, have now been discredited and/or retracted following overwhelming evidence that (1) numerous patient cohorts from around the world are XMRV-negative, (2) the initial reports of XMRV-positive patients were due to contamination with mouse DNA, XMRV plasmid DNA, or virus from the 22Rv1 cell line and (3) XMRV is a laboratory-derived virus generated in the mid 1990s through recombination during passage of a prostate tumor xenograft in immuno-compromised mice. While these developments are disappointing to scientists and patients, they provide a valuable road map of potential pitfalls to the would-be microbe hunters.

Mus spicilegus endogenous retrovirus HEMV uses murine sodium-dependent myo-inositol transporter 1 as a receptor.

We sought to determine the relationship between two recent additions to the murine leukemia virus (MLV) ecotropic subgroup: Mus cervicolor isolate M813 and Mus spicilegus endogenous retrovirus HEMV. Though divergent in sequence, the two viruses share an Env protein with similarly curtailed VRA and VRB regions, and infection by both is restricted to mouse cells. HEMV and M813 displayed reciprocal receptor interference, suggesting that they share a receptor. Expression of the M813 receptor murine sodium-dependent myo-inositol transporter 1 (mSMIT1) allowed previously nonpermissive cells to be infected by HEMV, indicating that mSMIT1 also serves as a receptor for HEMV. Our findings add HEMV as a second member to the MLV subgroup that uses mSMIT1 to gain entry into cells.

Characterization, mapping, and distribution of the two XMRV parental proviruses.

Xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) was previously reported to be associated with human prostate cancer and chronic fatigue syndrome. Our groups recently showed that XMRV was created through recombination between two endogenous murine retroviruses, PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2, during the passaging of a prostate tumor xenograft in nude mice. Here, multiple approaches that led to the identification of PreXMRV-2, as well as the distribution of both parental proviruses among different mouse species, are described. The chromosomal loci of both proviruses were determined in the mouse genome, and integration site information was used to analyze the distribution of both proviruses in 48 laboratory mouse strains and 46 wild-derived strains. The strain distributions of PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2 are quite different, the former being found predominantly in Asian mice and the latter in European mice, making it unlikely that the two XMRV ancestors could have recombined independently in the wild to generate an infectious virus. XMRV was not present in any of the mouse strains tested, and among the wild-derived mouse strains analyzed, not a single mouse carried both parental proviruses. Interestingly, PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2 were found together in three laboratory strains, Hsd nude, NU/NU, and C57BR/cd, consistent with previous data that the recombination event that led to the generation of XMRV could have occurred only in the laboratory. The three laboratory strains carried the Xpr1(n) receptor variant nonpermissive to XMRV and xenotropic murine leukemia virus (X-MLV) infection, suggesting that the xenografted human tumor cells were required for the resulting XMRV recombinant to infect and propagate.

Recombinant origin of the retrovirus XMRV.

The retrovirus XMRV (xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus) has been detected in human prostate tumors and in blood samples from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, but these findings have not been replicated. We hypothesized that an understanding of when and how XMRV first arose might help explain the discrepant results. We studied human prostate cancer cell lines CWR22Rv1 and CWR-R1, which produce XMRV virtually identical to the viruses recently found in patient samples, as well as their progenitor human prostate tumor xenograft (CWR22) that had been passaged in mice. We detected XMRV infection in the two cell lines and in the later passage xenografts, but not in the early passages. In particular, we found that the host mice contained two proviruses, PreXMRV-1 and PreXMRV-2, which share 99.92% identity with XMRV over >3.2-kilobase stretches of their genomes. We conclude that XMRV was not present in the original CWR22 tumor but was generated by recombination of two proviruses during tumor passaging in mice. The probability that an identical recombinant was generated independently is negligible (~10(-12)); our results suggest that the association of XMRV with human disease is due to contamination of human samples with virus originating from this recombination event.

Endogenous Murine Leukemia Viruses: Relationship to XMRV and Related Sequences Detected in Human DNA Samples.

Xenotropic-murine-leukemia-virus-related virus (XMRV) was the first gammaretrovirus to be reported in humans. The sequence similarity between XMRV and murine leukemia viruses (MLVs) was consistent with an origin of XMRV from one or more MLVs present as endogenous proviruses in mouse genomes. Here, we review the relationship of the human and mouse virus isolates and discuss the potential complications associated with the detection of MLV-like sequences from clinical samples.

Mouse DNA contamination in human tissue tested for XMRV.

BACKGROUND: We used a PCR-based approach to study the prevalence of genetic sequences related to a gammaretrovirus, xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus, XMRV, in human prostate cancer. This virus has been identified in the US in prostate cancer patients and in those with chronic fatigue syndrome. However, with the exception of two patients in Germany, XMRV has not been identified in prostate cancer tissue in Europe. Most putative associations of new or old human retroviruses with diseases have turned out to be due to contamination. We have looked for XMRV sequences in DNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin- embedded prostate tissues. To control for contamination, PCR assays to detect either mouse mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or intracisternal A particle (IAP) long terminal repeat DNA were run on all samples, owing to their very high copy number in mouse cells. RESULTS: In general agreement with the US prevalence, XMRV-like sequences were found in 4.8% of prostate cancers. However, these were also positive, as were 21.5% of XMRV-negative cases, for IAP sequences, and many, but not all were positive for mtDNA sequences. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that contamination with mouse DNA is widespread and detectable by the highly sensitive IAP assay, but not always with less sensitive assays, such as murine mtDNA PCR. This study highlights the ubiquitous presence of mouse DNA in laboratory specimens and offers a means of rigorous validation for future studies of murine retroviruses in human disease.

Contamination of human DNA samples with mouse DNA can lead to false detection of XMRV-like sequences.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, a novel gammaretrovirus, XMRV (xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus), was discovered in some prostate tumors. A more recent study indicated that this infectious retrovirus can be detected in 67% of patients suffering from chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), but only very few healthy controls (4%). However, several groups have published to date that they could not identify XMRV RNA or DNA sequences in other cohorts of CFS patients, while another group detected murine leukemia virus (MLV)-like sequences in 87% of such patients, but only 7% of healthy controls. Since there is a high degree of similarity between XMRV and abundant endogenous MLV proviruses, it is important to distinguish contaminating mouse sequences from true infections. RESULTS: DNA from the peripheral blood of 112 CFS patients and 36 healthy controls was tested for XMRV with two different PCR assays. A TaqMan qPCR assay specific for XMRV pol sequences was able to detect viral DNA from 2 XMRV-infected cells (~ 10-12 pg DNA) in up to 5 µg of human genomic DNA, but yielded negative results in the test of 600 ng genomic DNA from 100,000 peripheral blood cells of all samples tested. However, positive results were obtained with some of these samples, using a less specific nested PCR assay for a different XMRV sequence. DNA sequencing of the PCR products revealed a wide variety of virus-related sequences, some identical to those found in prostate cancer and CFS patients, others more closely related to known endogenous MLVs. However, all samples that tested positive for XMRV and/or MLV DNA were also positive for the highly abundant intracisternal A-type particle (IAP) long terminal repeat and most were positive for murine mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase sequences. No contamination was observed in any of the negative control samples, containing those with no DNA template, which were included in each assay. CONCLUSIONS: Mouse cells contain upwards of 100 copies each of endogenous MLV DNA. Even much less than one cell's worth of DNA can yield a detectable product using highly sensitive PCR technology. It is, therefore, vital that contamination by mouse DNA be monitored with adequately sensitive assays in all samples tested.

Ustekinumab.

Ustekinumab is an anti-IL12/23 IgG1 kappa human monoclonal antibody currently undergoing US Food and Drug Administration review for use as a psoriasis treatment. The candidate has also been evaluated in Phase 2 studies as a treatment for psoriatic arthritis, Crohn disease and multiple sclerosis.In large clinical trials, ustekinumab has proven effective for treating moderate to severe plaque psoriasis. Although long-term follow-up studies are needed to address safety concerns, the hopes are high for psoriasis treatment. Ustekinumab has recently been approved for marketing in Canada and Europe.

Motavizumab.

Motavizumab (MEDI-524, Numax) is a second generation monoclonal antibody (mAb) derived from palivizumab (Synagis) using affinity maturation techniques. Motavizumab is currently undergoing US Food and Drug Administration review as a treatment for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) prophylaxis. It has been evaluated in large-scale clinical studies, and has demonstrated efficacy in reducing the disease burden of RSV in high-risk infant populations.

Systemic stromal effects of estrogen promote the growth of estrogen receptor-negative cancers.

Numerous hormonal factors contribute to the lifetime risk of breast cancer development. These include inherited genetic mutations, age of menarche, age of menopause, and parity. Inexplicably, there is evidence indicating that ovariectomy prevents the formation of both estrogen receptor (ER)-positive and ER-negative breast cancers, suggesting that ER-negative breast cancers are dependent on ovarian hormones for their formation. To examine the mechanism(s) by which this may be occurring, we investigated the hypothesis that steroid hormones promote the outgrowth of ER-negative cancers by influencing host cell types distinct from the mammary epithelial cells. We used a novel xenograft mouse model of parturition-induced breast carcinoma formation, in which the tumors that arise following pregnancy lack the expression of nuclear hormone receptors, thereby recapitulating many clinical cases of this disease. Despite lacking ER expression, the tumors arising following pregnancy in this model require circulating estrogens for their formation. Moreover, increasing the levels of circulating estrogens sufficed to promote the formation and progression of ER-negative cancers, which was accompanied by a systemic increase in host angiogenesis and was attendant with the recruitment of bone marrow-derived stromal cells. Furthermore, bone marrow cells from estrogen-treated mice were sufficient to promote tumor growth. These results reveal a novel mechanism by which estrogens promote the growth of ER-negative cancers.