On the use of the healthy lifestyle index to investigate specific disease outcomes.

The healthy lifestyle index (HLI), defined as the unweighted sum of individual lifestyle components, was used to investigate the combined role of lifestyle factors on health-related outcomes. We introduced weighted outcome-specific versions of the HLI, where individual lifestyle components were weighted according to their associations with disease outcomes. Within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), we examined the association between the standard and the outcome-specific HLIs and the risk of T2D, CVD, cancer, and all-cause premature mortality. Estimates of the hazard ratios (HRs), the Harrell's C-index and the population attributable fractions (PAFs) were compared. For T2D, the HR for 1-SD increase of the standard and T2D-specific HLI were 0.66 (95% CI: 0.64, 0.67) and 0.43 (0.42, 0.44), respectively, and the C-index were 0.63 (0.62, 0.64) and 0.72 (0.72, 0.73). Similar, yet less pronounced differences in HR and C-index were observed for standard and outcome-specific estimates for cancer, CVD and all-cause mortality. PAF estimates for mortality before age 80 were 57% (55%, 58%) and 33% (32%, 34%) for standard and mortality-specific HLI, respectively. The use of outcome-specific HLI could improve the assessment of the role of lifestyle factors on disease outcomes, thus enhancing the definition of public health recommendations.

Healthy lifestyle change and all-cause and cancer mortality in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort.

BACKGROUND: Healthy lifestyles are inversely associated with the risk of noncommunicable diseases, which are leading causes of death. However, few studies have used longitudinal data to assess the impact of changing lifestyle behaviours on all-cause and cancer mortality. METHODS: Within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort, lifestyle profiles of 308,497 cancer-free adults (71% female) aged 35-70 years at recruitment across nine countries were assessed with baseline and follow-up questionnaires administered on average of 7 years apart. A healthy lifestyle index (HLI), assessed at two time points, combined information on smoking status, alcohol intake, body mass index, and physical activity, and ranged from 0 to 16 units. A change score was calculated as the difference between HLI at baseline and follow-up. Associations between HLI change and all-cause and cancer mortality were modelled with Cox regression, and the impact of changing HLI on accelerating mortality rate was estimated by rate advancement periods (RAP, in years). RESULTS: After the follow-up questionnaire, participants were followed for an average of 9.9 years, with 21,696 deaths (8407 cancer deaths) documented. Compared to participants whose HLIs remained stable (within one unit), improving HLI by more than one unit was inversely associated with all-cause and cancer mortality (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.81, 0.88; and HR: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.82, 0.92; respectively), while worsening HLI by more than one unit was associated with an increase in mortality (all-cause mortality HR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.20, 1.33; cancer mortality HR: 1.19; 95% CI: 1.09, 1.29). Participants who worsened HLI by more than one advanced their risk of death by 1.62 (1.44, 1.96) years, while participants who improved HLI by the same amount delayed their risk of death by 1.19 (0.65, 2.32) years, compared to those with stable HLI. CONCLUSIONS: Making healthier lifestyle changes during adulthood was inversely associated with all-cause and cancer mortality and delayed risk of death. Conversely, making unhealthier lifestyle changes was positively associated with mortality and an accelerated risk of death.

Territorial gaps on quality of causes of death statistics over the last forty years in Spain.

BACKGROUND: The quality of the statistics on causes of death (CoD) does not present consolidated indicators in literature further than the coding group of ill-defined conditions of the International Classification of Diseases. Our objective was to assess the territorial quality of CoD by reliability of the official mortality statistics in Spain over the years 1980-2019. METHODS: A descriptive epidemiological design of four decades (1980-, 1990-, 2000-, and 2010-2019) by region (18) and sex was implemented. The CoD cases, age-adjusted rates and ratios (to all-cause) were assigned by reliability to unspecific and ill-defined quality categories. The regional mortality rates were contrasted to the Spanish median by decade and sex by the Comparative Mortality Ratio (CMR) in a Bayesian perspective. Statistical significance was considered when the CMR did not contain the value 1 in the 95% credible intervals. RESULTS: Unspecific, ill-defined, and all-cause rates by region and sex decreased over 1980-2019, although they scored higher in men than in women. The ratio of ill-defined CoD decreased in both sexes over these decades, but was still prominent in 4 regions. CMR of ill-defined CoD in both sexes exceeded the Spanish median in 3 regions in all decades. In the last decade, women's CMR significantly exceeded in 5 regions for ill-defined and in 6 regions for unspecific CoD, while men's CMR exceeded in 4 and 2 of the 18 regions, respectively on quality categories. CONCLUSIONS: The quality of mortality statistics of causes of death has increased over the 40 years in Spain in both sexes. Quality gaps still remain mostly in Southern regions. Authorities involved might consider to take action and upgrading regional and national death statistics, and developing a systematic medical post-grade training on death certification.

Heterogeneidad en el perfil profesional y las actividades de los registros de mortalidad en España / Professional and activities profiles heterogeneity in the mortality registries in Spain

Objetivo: Los Registros de Mortalidad (RM) codifican las causas de muerte para la elaboración de la estadística de defunciones según la causa de muerte del Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). Esta actividad puede mejorarse por búsqueda documental y formación médica. Nuestro objetivo fue analizar el perfil profesional y las actividades de los RM. Método: Se diseñó una encuesta que fue distribuida en febrero de 2021. Sus dominios fueron perfil profesional, actividades de mejora, docencia y publicación. Participaron 16/18 RM. Se realizó un análisis de agrupamientos. Resultados: Once RM pertenecen a Salud Pública. Cinco disponen de convenio con el INE. El 39% impartieron formación. El 56% realizaban publicaciones. Diez mejoraban las causas de muerte. El 17% verificaban la codificación automática. El análisis de agrupaciones partió de 5/16 grupos. Conclusiones: Los RM son heterogéneos en cuanto a profesionales, calidad y publicaciones. Homogenizar implicaría la búsqueda documental, un único convenio con el INE e impartir formación médica sistémica. (AU)

Objective: The mortality registries (MR) code death causes for the elaboration of the mortality statistics of the Spanish National Institute of Statistics (INE). Documentary research and medical training can improve this activity. Our objective was to analyse the professional profile and activities of the MR. Method: A survey was designed and distributed in February 2021. Professional profile, quality activities, medical training, and regular publications were the major topics. 16/18 MR participated. A cluster analysis was performed. Results: Eleven registries belong to Public Health. Five have an INE agreement, 39% provided training, and 56% made regular publications. Ten improved the causes of death, and 17% reviewed the automatic coding. The cluster analysis started from 5/16 groups of registries. Conclusions: The MR were heterogeneous in professionals, quality and publications. Homogeneity implies documentary search, a sole INE agreement, and providing systemic medical training. (AU)

Defunciones por COVID-19: no están todas las que son y no son todas las que están / Deaths by COVID-19: not all were registered and others should not be accounted for

La exactitud en el número de defunciones por COVID-19 ha generado polémica pública. La urgencia en disponer de esta información conjuntamente con otros datos, para valorar la pandemia ha inducido una variedad de procedimientos y formatos de modo que los datos no siempre se han tramitado de forma comparable al Ministerio de Sanidad. La elaboración de las estadísticas de mortalidad es compleja. Intervienen varias administraciones centrales y autonómicas, y no de la misma manera. La principal fuente de información es el certificado médico de defunción (CD) que permite distinguir por lugar de ocurrencia y causas de muerte. La inscripción telemática del CD en el ya informatizado registro civil y/o en la historia clínica digital, permitiría disponer de un circuito de procesamiento estadístico, y obtener con celeridad del recuento de fallecidos según causa ante una emergencia sanitaria. Para ello, que se requiere un acuerdo institucional multilateral en España

The death counts from COVID-19 have generated public controversy. The regional health councils' need for information regardind the cases, has generated a variety of formats and procedures, used to report this information. Consecuently, this data has not always been communicated in a comparable maner to the Ministry of Health. The compilation of mortality statistics is complex. Central and autonomous public administrations are involved, and not in the same way. The medical death certificate (DC) is the main source of information that allows to specify place of occurrence and causes of death. The on-line registration of the DC in the computerized civil registry and/or digital medical records, would allow to establish a statistical processing circuit, and to obtain a death count more quickly according to causes of death in the event of a health emergency. This requires a multi-level institutional agreement for a total telematics statistic process of death causes in Spain

Más de una década de mejora de la certificación médica y judicial en la estadística de defunciones según causa de muerte / More than a decade of improvement in medical and judicial certification in the statistics of causes of death

Fundamentos: Tras el retorno de España a la democracia y la asunción regional de competencias gubernamentales, se iniciaron actuaciones de mejora de la estadística de causas de muerte. El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir la evolución de las actividades de mejora de la calidad en la estadística de mortalidad en la región de Murcia de 1998 a 2011. Métodos: Estudio epidemiológico descriptivo de todos los documentos de defunción procesados por el registro de mortalidad de Murcia. Dentro de este estudio se incluyen el uso de indicadores relativos a la calidad de la cumplimentación de documentos por médicos y juzgados, la recuperación de información sobre las causas y circunstancias de la muerte, y el impacto en la estadística de las causas mal definidas, inespecíficas y poco específicas. Resultados: Durante el periodo de estudio, la notificación médica sin secuencia temporal en el certificado de defunción ha disminuido del 46% inicial al 21% final (p<0,001). La recuperación de información de las fuentes resultó exitosa en el 93% de los casos en 2001 comparada con el 38% al principio del periodo (p<0,001). Las tasas regionales de las causas mal definidas y poco específicas descendieron más que las nacionales, y se situaron en el último año con un diferencial de 10,3 (p<0,001) y 2,8 puntos (p=0,001), respectivamente. Conclusiones: La certificación médica de la defunción mejoró en forma e idoneidad. La recuperación reglada de las causas y circunstancias de la muerte corrigió la información médica y judicial. La región de Murcia presentó menores tasas ajustadas por causas poco específicas y entidades mal definidas que el promedio nacional

Background: After the return of democracy to Spain and the assumption of governmental powers by the regional areas, measures were taken to improve cause-of-death statistics. The objective of this study was to describe the evolution of the activities undertaken to improve the quality of mortality statistics in the region of Murcia from 1998 to 2011. Methods: A descriptive epidemiological study of all the death documentation processed by the mortality registry in Murcia. Relative quality indicators were used to evaluate the fulfilment of documentation by doctors and court staff. This was backed up by information recovery regarding the causes and circumstances of death, and evaluating the impact on the mortality statistics of ill-defined, unspecific and less specific causes. Results: During the study-period, lack of temporal sequence on the medical death certificate reduced from an initial 46% to a final 21% (p<0.001). Retrieval of information from the various sources was successful in 93% of cases in 2001 compared with 38% at the start of the period (p<0.001). Regional rates of ill-defined and less specific causes have reduced more than the national Spanish rates, with a difference of 10.3 (p<0.001) and 2.8 points (p=0.001), respectively. Conclusions: Medical certification of death has improved both form and suitability. The regulated recovery of the causes and circumstances of death corrected medical and judicial information. Murcia presented lower age-adjusted death rates of less specific and ill-defined causes than the national average

Documentos médicos de la defunción actualizados: certificado médico de defunción y boletín estadístico de parto / Updated medical death documents: Medical Death Certificate and the Birth Statistics Bulletin

Los médicos de salud pública han instado reiteradamente a la adecuación del certificado médico de defunción (CMD) y la notificación de las muertes perinatales según los estándares de la OMS. El nuevo CMD entró en vigor en enero de 2009, mientras que el boletín estadístico de parto (BEP) tuvo modificaciones relevantes en 2007.Se informa al médico certificador sobre sus novedades y aspectos clave. Se insiste en la trascendencia sanitaria de este acto medicolegal. A la vez que se mencionan temas relacionados que restan pendientes en España.El CMD unifica en un impreso el certificado médico y el boletín estadístico de defunción y cumple con las recomendaciones de la OMS. Pregunta si el deceso ha sido consecuencia diferida de un accidente de tráfico o de trabajo y si se practicó la autopsia (clínica). Por lugar del óbito, se refiere al lugar donde se ha reconocido el cadáver y se ha certificado la muerte. También se debe indicar el tiempo aproximado de las causas de defunción al fallecimiento. El BEP recoge los nacimientos y los decesos del parto. Incorpora la educación y la ocupación de la madre y del padre, a la vez que mantiene el número de semanas de gestación y el peso en gramos al nacer.Queda pendiente la mejora de la notificación de las muertes judiciales y de las muertes perinatales, la cesión confidencial de las causas de muerte a médicos e investigadores y una estadística de defunciones según causa con menos desfase entre los sucesos y su disponibilidad y publicación(AU)

Public health physicians have constantly urged that the Medical Death Certificate (CMD in Spain) and the notification of perinatal deaths be adapted to WHO standards. The new CMD came into effect in January 2009, whilst significant changes were made to the Birth Statistics Bulletin (BEP acronym in Spanish) in 2007.In this article the certifying doctor is informed on their novel and key aspects. The health significance of this medico-legal act is emphasised. At the same time associated issues are mentioned that still need to be resolved in Spain.The CMD unifies the medical cerificate and the death statistics bulletin on one form and complies with WHO recommendations. It asks whether the death has been the result of an already registered traffic or work accident, and if an autopsy (clinical) has been performed. For place of death, it means the place where the cadaver has been recognised and the death certified. The approximate time of the causes of death must also be indicated. The BEP registers the births and deaths in labour. It includes the education level and occupation levels of the mother and father, and still has the number of weeks gestation and the birth weight in grams.Notification of legal deaths and perinatal deaths still need to be improved; the confidential transfer of causes of death to doctors and researchers; and death statistics according to cause with less delay between the events and their availability and publication(AU)

Influence of the introduction of the ICD-10 on tendencies of mortality by causes (1980–2004)

Objective: To evaluate the influence of the tenth revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) on tendencies of annual mortality rates, corrected and uncorrected to the ICD-9. Methods: Starting with the causes with a significant comparability ratio, we calculated the annual age adjusted rates from 1980 to 2004. The comparability ratio was applied to the rates for 1999–2004, obtaining the corrected series for the whole period. This series was then compared with the uncorrected series using join point regression. Results: Mortality decreased between 1999 and 2004. Differences were found in blood diseases, hypertensive diseases, cancer of ill defined sites, respiratory insufficiency, and myelodys plastic syndrome. Conclusions: The tendency of the main causes of mortality has been largely unaffected by the revisions in the ICD-10, except in infrequent or less specific diseases (AU)

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Análisis de la asociación entre un tratamiento y un acontecimiento de interés en estudios observacionales utilizando la probabilidad de recibir el tratamiento (Propensity Score). Un ejemplo con la reperfusión miocárdica / Analysis with the propensity score of the association between likelihood of treatment and event of interest in observational studies. An example with myocardial reperfusion

Introducción y objetivos. Determinar el efecto de un tratamiento en estudios observacionales es problemático por las diferencias existentes entre tratados y no tratados. Un método propuesto para controlar estas diferenciases calcular la probabilidad condicionada por covariables de recibir el tratamiento, Propensity Score (PS).Presentamos una aplicación de este método analizándola asociación entre reperfusión y letalidad a 28 días en pacientes con infarto agudo de miocardio (IAM).Método. Se presenta cómo calcular la PS de recibir reperfusión y las diferentes estrategias para analizar posteriormente su asociación con la letalidad mediante modelos de regresión y apareamiento. Utilizamos datos de un registro poblacional de IAM realizado en España entre1997 y 1998 que incluyó 6.307 IAM. Resultados. Se calculó la PS de reperfusión en 5.622pacientes. En el análisis multivariado la reperfusión se asoció con menor letalidad (odds ratio [OR] = 0,59; intervalo de confianza [IC] del 95%, 0,46-0,77); al ajustara demás por la PS de reperfusión esta asociación no fue significativa (OR = 0,76; IC del 95%, 0,57-1,01). En el subgrupo de pacientes apareados, tratados y no tratados con PS de reperfusión similar (n = 3.138), este tratamiento no se asoció con letalidad (OR = 0,95; IC del95%, 0,72-1,26). Controlando el impacto de los casos con datos insuficientes en la PS de reperfusión, ésta se asoció con menor letalidad (OR = 0,66; IC del 95%,0,55-0,80).Conclusiones. El cálculo de la PS es un método para controlar las diferencias entre los grupos tratado y no tratado. Tiene limitaciones cuando el apareamiento es incompleto o hay datos insuficientes en la PS calculada. Los resultados del ejemplo presentado indican que la reperfusión reduce la letalidad del IAM

Introduction and objectives. Analysis of the effect of treatment in observational studies is complex due to differences between treated and non-treated patients. Calculating the probability of receiving treatment conditioned on relevant covariates (propensity score [PS]) has been proposed as a method to control for these differences. Were port an application of PS to assess the association between reperfusion treatment and 28-day case fatality in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI).Method. We describe the procedure used to calculate PS for receiving reperfusion treatment, and different strategies to analyze the association between PS and case fatality with regression modeling and matching. Data were from a population-based registry of 6307 patients with AMI in Spain during 1997-98.Results. The PS for reperfusion was calculated in 5622patients. In the multivariate analysis, reperfusion was associated with lower case fatality (OR = 0.59; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.46-0.77). When PS was included as a covariate, this association became non-significant (OR = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.57-1.01). In the subgroup of matched patients with a similar PS (n = 3138),treatment was not associated with case fatality (OR =0.95; 95% CI: 0.72-1.26). When the influence of cases with missing data on PS was controlled for, reperfusion treatment was associated with lower fatality (OR = 0.66;95% CI: 0.55-0.80).Conclusions. Calculating propensity score is a method that controls for differences between treated and non-treated patients. This score has limitations when matching is incomplete and when data are missing. Results of the present example suggest that reperfusion treatment reduces AMI case fatality

Utilidad del boletín estadístico de defunción para la identificación de muertes extrahospitalarias en un registro poblacional de infartos agudos de miocardio / Usefulness of the Statistical Bulletin of Deaths to Identify Extrahospital Deaths in the Context of a Myocardial Infarction Population Registry

Introducción y objetivos. Se estudió la utilidad del boletín estadístico de defunción (BED) para la identificación de muertes extrahospitalarias por isquemia coronaria aguda y la estrategia en la selección de causas de defunción aparecidas en el BED más eficiente para dicha identificación. Métodos. Se seleccionaron aquellos BED correspondientes a defunciones extrahospitalarias que incluyesen alguna causa de muerte indicativa de que ésta pudo ser debida a isquemia cardíaca. Para estudiar la utilidad del BED se calculó la sensibilidad y el valor predictivo de la isquemia cardíaca. Para determinar la estrategia más eficiente en la selección de causas de muerte se compararon 2 estrategias: la primera, utilizando la causa básica de defunción, y la segunda, teniendo en cuenta todos los procesos patológicos mencionados en el BED. Resultados. De los 395 BED seleccionados, 161 fueron clasificados como infartos agudos de miocardio. En aquellos BED en los que figuraba la isquemia cardíaca como causa básica de muerte se obtuvo una sensibilidad de 82,6 por ciento (IC del 95 por ciento: 75,9-88,1) y un valor predictivo de 72,7 por ciento (IC del 95 por ciento: 65,6-79). La estrategia en la selección de BED más eficiente fue la de investigar aquellos en los que aparecía mencionada la isquemia cardíaca y los BED cuya causa básica de muerte fue: diabetes mellitus, hipertensión arterial esencial, enfermedad cardíaca hipertensiva, disritmia cardíaca o insuficiencia cardíaca. Conclusiones. La información que aportan los BED para las muertes extrahospitalarias por isquemia coronaria resulta fiable. Se propone una estrategia sensible y eficiente en la selección de BED para la detección de casos (AU)