Infliximab therapy balances regulatory T cells, tumour necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) expression and soluble TNFR2 in sarcoidosis.

Sarcoidosis is a systemic granulomatous disease of unknown aetiology that most commonly affects the lungs. Although elevated levels of regulatory T cells (Tregs ) have been reported, the extent to which they play a role in sarcoidosis pathogenesis remains unclear. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) is thought to be one of the driving forces behind granuloma formation, illustrated by the efficacy of infliximab in severe sarcoidosis. Tregs express TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2) highly. Here, we examined the influence of infliximab therapy on Tregs and (soluble) TNFR2 levels in sarcoidosis, and correlated these with response to therapy. We observed that relative frequencies of Tregs were significantly higher in patients (n = 54) compared to healthy controls (n = 26; median 6·73 versus 4·36%; P < 0·001) and decreased following therapy (4·95; P < 0·001). Baseline TNFR2 expression on Tregs was increased significantly in patients versus controls (99·4 versus 96·2%; P = 0·031), and also in responders to therapy versus non-responders (99·6 versus 97·3%; P = 0·012). Furthermore, baseline soluble TNFR2 (sTNFR2) was higher in responders than in non-responders (mean 174 versus 107 pg/ml; P = 0·015). After treatment, responders showed a significant reduction in sTNFR2 levels in peripheral blood (-44·7 pg/ml; P < 0·001), in contrast to non-responders (+3·59 pg/ml). Our results demonstrated that Treg frequencies and TNFR2 expression on Tregs are increased in sarcoidosis, followed by a decline during infliximab therapy, suggesting a pathophysiological role of this T cell subset. Interestingly, sTNFR2 levels at baseline differed significantly between responders and non-responders, making it a potential marker in predicting which patients might benefit from infliximab.

Bronchoalveolar lavage cell pattern from healthy human lung.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is widely accepted as a key diagnostic procedure in interstitial lung diseases (ILD). We performed a study to obtain reference intervals of differential cell patterns in BAL fluid with special attention to the origin of lavage fluid, e.g. bronchial/alveolar, to atopy and smoking status and to age of the healthy people. We performed bronchoalveolar lavage in 55 healthy subjects with known atopy status (age: 18-64 years, non-smokers/smokers: 34/21) and determined differential cell counts and lymphocyte subsets in BAL fluid and blood. Moreover, in a subgroup of non-smoking healthy individuals we measured the expression of the regulatory T cell marker forkhead box protein 3 (FoxP3) on blood and BAL fluid lymphocytes in addition to a comprehensive set of activation markers. Differential cell counts from the alveolar lavage fraction differed significantly from calculated pooled fractions (n = 11). In contrast, marginal differences were found between atopic and non-atopic subjects. Interestingly, the BAL fluid CD4(+) /CD8(+) ratio correlated strongly with age (r(2) = 0·50, P < 0·0001). We consider the bronchial and alveolar fraction to be lavage fluid from fundamentally different compartments and recommend analysis of the alveolar fraction in diagnostic work-up of ILD. In addition, our data suggest that age corrected BAL fluid CD4(+) /CD8(+) ratios should be used in the clinical evaluation of patients with interstitial lung diseases.

T-cell activation profiles in different granulomatous interstitial lung diseases--a role for CD8+CD28(null) cells?

Lymphocytes play a crucial role in lung inflammation. Different interstitial lung diseases may show distinct lymphocyte activation profiles. The aim of this study was to examine the expression of a variety of activation markers on T lymphocyte subsets from blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of patients with different granulomatous interstitial lung diseases and healthy controls. Bronchoalveolar lavage cells and blood cells from 23 sarcoidosis patients, seven patients with hypersensitivity pneumonitis and 24 healthy controls were analysed. Lymphocyte activation status was determined by flow cytometry. Lymphocytes were stained with antibodies against CD3, CD4, CD8, CD25, CD28, CD69, very late antigen-1 (VLA)-1, VLA-4 and human leucocyte antigen D-related (HLA-DR). In general, CD28, CD69 and VLA-1 expression on BALF CD4+ lymphocytes and HLA-DR expression on BALF CD8+ lymphocytes was different in patients with hypersensitivity pneumonitis and sarcoidosis patients with parenchymal involvement. This BALF lymphocyte phenotype correlated with carbon monoxide diffusing lung capacity (Dlco) values across interstitial lung diseases (ILD) (r2 = 0.48, P = 0.0002). In sarcoidosis patients, CD8+CD28(null) blood lymphocytes correlated with lower Dlco values (r = -0.66, P = 0.004), chronic BALF lymphocyte activation phenotype (r2 = 0.65, P < 0.0001), radiographic staging (stage I versus stage II and higher, P = 0.006) and with the need for corticosteroid treatment (P = 0.001). Higher expression of CD69, VLA-1 and HLA-DR and lower expression of CD28 on BALF lymphocytes suggests prolonged stimulation and chronic lymphocyte activation in patients with ILD. In sarcoidosis, blood CD8+CD28(null) cells might be a new biomarker for disease severity but needs further investigation.

Effect of variation in ITGAE on risk of sarcoidosis, CD103 expression, and chest radiography.

The integrin alpha(E)beta(7) is believed to play a key role in retention of lymphocytes in mucosal tissues of gut, urogenital tract and lung. Five common single nucleotide polymorphisms spanning ITGAE, the gene encoding the alpha(E) (CD103) unit, were genotyped in 556 sarcoidosis patients and 465 controls. The -1088 A/G polymorphism was associated with sarcoidosis (P=0.004). An increased risk of disease was found for homozygous carriers of the A allele vs. carriers of the G allele (P=0.001, odds ratio=1.63 [1.22-2.17]). Analysis of lymphocytes from bronchoalveolar lavage and in vitro functional tests showed higher percentages of CD103+CD4+ T cells for the sarcoidosis risk genotype. Radiographic staging at disease outcome revealed prevalence of -1088 AA genotype in patients with fibrosis (P=0.01). A higher proportion of CD103+CD4+ T cells and ITGAE -1088 AA genotype might be associated with fibrosis formation in pulmonary sarcoidosis.

Variation in IL7R predisposes to sarcoid inflammation.

Sarcoidosis is a chronic granulomatous disorder characterized by a massive influx of Th1 lymphocytes. Both naive and memory T cells express high levels of interleukin 7 receptor-alpha (IL7R alpha), encoded by the IL7R gene. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the IL7R gene region in susceptibility to sarcoidosis. Six common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning IL7R were genotyped and analyzed in 475 sarcoidosis patients and 465 healthy controls. Replication of one significant associated SNP was carried out in 206 independent sarcoidosis patients, 127 controls and 126 patients with Löfgren's disease. The rs10213865 SNP was associated with sarcoidosis (P=0.008), and in silico analysis showed a complete linkage (r(2)=1, D'=1) with a functional nonsynonymous coding SNP in exon 6 (rs6897932, T244I). Combined analysis of 663 individuals with sarcoidosis and 586 controls (homozygous carriers of risk allele, P=5 x 10(-4), odds ratio=1.49 (1.19-1.86)) provided strong statistical support for a genuine association of IL7R with the risk of sarcoidosis. In addition, we report the same trend between variation in the IL7R gene and patients with Löfgren's disease, suggesting that variation in IL7R may confer general risk for developing granulomatous lung disease.

Vaccination responses and lymphocyte subsets after autologous stem cell transplantation.

Twenty autologous stem cell transplant recipients were vaccinated with three doses of Diphtheria-Tetanus-Poliomyelitis vaccine and conjugated Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine. Pneumococcal vaccination consisted of two doses of conjugated vaccine followed by a single dose of polysaccharide vaccine, at 6, 8 and 14 months after transplantation, respectively. Mean anti-tetanus, anti-Hib and anti-pneumococcal IgG antibodies significantly increased after each vaccination. Response rates after the full vaccination schedule were 94%, 78% and 61% for Hib, conjugated 7-valent pneumococcal vaccine and non-conjugated 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine, respectively. Three months after transplantation, CD16(+)CD56(+) NK cells were in the normal range and remained so. The total number of T lymphocytes at 3 months was and remained in the normal range. The mean CD4/CD8 ratio was 0.43 at 3 months post aSCT and, while gradually increasing, remained subnormal. The mean number of CD19(+) B lymphocytes significantly increased during the study period. Patients with CD19 counts <0.10 x 10(9)L(-1) required at least two Hib vaccinations to show a response, while the majority of patients with CD19 counts > or = 0.20 x 10(9)L(-1) showed a response to Hib after one vaccination only. Thus, a minimum threshold level of CD19(+) cells appears to be required for adequate responses to vaccination.

Linkage between Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 promotor and intron polymorphisms: functional effects and relevance to sarcoidosis.

The intracellular pathogens Propionibacterium acnes and Mycobacterium tuberculosis have been leading suspects as the cause of sarcoidosis, a systemic disorder characterized by the formation of non-caseating granulomas. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 is important in the innate immune response against both pathogens, and is therefore of interest in sarcoidosis research. In the present study, three single nucleotide polymorphisms and one dinucleotide repeat polymorphism in the TLR-2 gene were genotyped in 419 sarcoidosis patients, divided into a study cohort and a validation cohort, and 196 healthy controls. In the study cohort we found a significant increase in prevalence of the AA-genotype at promotor location -16934 in patients with chronic disease compared to patients with acute/self-remitting sarcoidosis (34.5% versus 15.9%, respectively, P = 0.006, P(c) = 0.019). These results could not be confirmed in our validation cohort, implicating a possible role for TLR-2 genetics in only a small percentage of sarcoidosis patients. Furthermore, linkage was found between the promotor polymorphism -16934 A/T and the number of GT repeats in intron 1 (P < 0.0001). After in vitro stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PMBCs) with different TLR-2 agonists, a correlation between induction of TNF-alpha (P = 0.008), interleukin (IL)-12 (P = 0.008) as well as IL-6 (P = 0.02), and the number of GT repeats was observed. In conclusion, the data show that polymorphisms in TLR-2 might be important in a small group of sarcoidosis patients and that their functional consequences explain partly some of the variance in cytokine pattern observed in different clinical phenotypes of this disease.

Development of T cell-mediated immunity after autologous stem cell transplantation: prolonged impairment of antigen-stimulated production of gamma-interferon.

The conditioning regimens for autologous SCT (auto-SCT) lead to impairment of the immune system and concomitant increase in susceptibility to infections. We studied the recovery of cellular immunity by in vitro analysis of T-cell proliferation and cytokine production profiles during the first 15 months after auto-SCT in patients with multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. PBMC were collected at 6, 9 and 15 months after transplantation and stimulated with a combination of CD2 and CD28 monoclonal antibodies, with PHA or with tetanus toxoid as recall antigen. A multiplex enzyme linked immunoassay was used to determine levels of Th1 cytokines IL-2, IFN-gamma and tumour-necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13, the regulatory cytokine IL-10 and the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6 and the chemokine IL-8. T-cell proliferation progressively increased from 6 to 15 months after auto-SCT. Overall, cytokine production increased after auto-SCT. Production of Th2 cytokines IL-5 and IL-13 was superior to production of Th1 cytokines IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha. We hypothesize that prolonged impairment of IFN-gamma production might contribute to the relatively high incidence of viral infections after auto-SCT.

A phase II study of active specific immunotherapy and 5-FU/Leucovorin as adjuvant therapy for stage III colon carcinoma.

Active specific immunotherapy, using vaccines with autologous tumour cells and BCG, significantly reduces the rate of tumour recurrence in stage II colon cancer patients, while no clinical benefit has yet been observed in stage III patients. Adjuvant treatment with 5-Fluorouracil/Leucovorin is now considered standard therapy for stage III colon carcinoma and results in an absolute survival benefit of approximately 10%. Yet, the 5-year overall survival rate of stage III colon cancer patients is only 40-50%. Combining chemotherapy and immunotherapy might improve prognosis for stage III patients, especially when considering that active specific immunotherapy and chemotherapy have shown synergistic effects in pre-clinical tumour models. We performed a phase II study with 56 patients, using the combination of active specific immunotherapy and chemotherapy as an adjuvant therapy in stage III colon cancer patients to assess the influence of 5-Fluorouracil/Leucovorin on anti-tumour immunity induced by autologous tumour cell vaccinations. Anti-tumour immunity was measured before and after chemotherapy by means of delayed type hypersensitivity reactions, taken 48 h after the third and the fourth vaccination. We also investigated the toxicity of this combined immuno-chemotherapy treatment. Delayed type hypersensitivity reactions before chemotherapy had a median size of 20.3 mm, while after chemotherapy delayed type hypersensitivity size was 18.4 mm (P=0.01), indicating that chemotherapy hardly affected anti-tumour immunity. The severity of ulcers at the BCG vaccination sites was comparable to previous studies. In 30% of the patients grade III or grade IV chemotherapy related toxicity was seen; this is comparable to what is normally observed after adjuvant chemotherapy alone. This study shows that the active specific immunotherapy-induced anti-tumour immune response is only minimally impaired by consecutive chemotherapy and that the combined treatment of stage III colon cancer patients with active specific immunotherapy and 5-Fluorouracil/Leucovorin does not cause unexpected toxicity.