Body Composition and Cardiometabolic Risk Markers in Children of Women who Took Part in a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Preconceptional Nutritional Intervention in Mumbai, India.

BACKGROUND: Maternal nutrition influences fetal development and may permanently alter ("program") offspring body composition and metabolism, thereby influencing later risk of diabetes and cardiovascular (cardiometabolic) disease. The prevalence of cardiometabolic disease is rising rapidly in India. OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that supplementing low-income Indian women with micronutrient-rich foods preconceptionally and during pregnancy has a beneficial impact on the children's body composition and cardiometabolic risk marker profiles. METHODS: Follow-up of 1255 children aged 5-10 y whose mothers took part in the Mumbai Maternal Nutrition Project [Project "SARAS"; International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN)62811278]. Mothers were randomly assigned to receive a daily micronutrient-rich snack or a control snack of lower micronutrient content, both made from local foods, in addition to normal diet, from before pregnancy until delivery. Children's body composition was assessed using anthropometry and DXA. Their blood pressure, plasma glucose, insulin, and lipid concentrations were measured. Outcomes were compared between allocation groups with and without adjustment for confounding factors. RESULTS: Overall, 15% of children were stunted, 34% were wasted, and 3% were overweight. In the intention-to-treat analysis, there were no differences in body composition or risk markers between children in the intervention and control groups. Among children whose mothers started supplementation ≥3 mo before conception (the "per protocol" sample) the intervention increased adiposity among girls, but not boys. BMI in girls was increased relative to controls by 2% (95% CI: 1, 4; P = 0.01); fat mass index by 10% (95% CI: 3, 18; P = 0.004); and percent fat by 7% (95% CI: 1, 13; P = 0.01) unadjusted, with similar results in adjusted models. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, supplementing women with micronutrient-rich foods from before pregnancy until delivery did not alter body composition or cardiometabolic risk markers in the children. Subgroup analyses showed that, if started ≥3 mo before conception, supplementation may increase adiposity among female children.

Body Composition and Cardiometabolic Risk Markers in Children of Women who Took Part in a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Preconceptional Nutritional Intervention in Mumbai, India.

BACKGROUND: Maternal nutrition influences fetal development and may permanently alter ("program") offspring body composition and metabolism, thereby influencing later risk of diabetes and cardiovascular (cardiometabolic) disease. The prevalence of cardiometabolic disease is rising rapidly in India. OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that supplementing low-income Indian women with micronutrient-rich foods preconceptionally and during pregnancy has a beneficial impact on the children's body composition and cardiometabolic risk marker profiles. METHODS: Follow-up of 1255 children aged 5-10 y whose mothers took part in the Mumbai Maternal Nutrition Project [Project "SARAS"; International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN)62811278]. Mothers were randomly assigned to receive a daily micronutrient-rich snack or a control snack of lower micronutrient content, both made from local foods, in addition to normal diet, from before pregnancy until delivery. Children's body composition was assessed using anthropometry and DXA. Their blood pressure, plasma glucose, insulin, and lipid concentrations were measured. Outcomes were compared between allocation groups with and without adjustment for confounding factors. RESULTS: Overall, 15% of children were stunted, 34% were wasted, and 3% were overweight. In the intention-to-treat analysis, there were no differences in body composition or risk markers between children in the intervention and control groups. Among children whose mothers started supplementation ≥3 mo before conception (the "per protocol" sample) the intervention increased adiposity among girls, but not boys. BMI in girls was increased relative to controls by 2% (95% CI: 1, 4; P = 0.01); fat mass index by 10% (95% CI: 3, 18; P = 0.004); and percent fat by 7% (95% CI: 1, 13; P = 0.01) unadjusted, with similar results in adjusted models. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, supplementing women with micronutrient-rich foods from before pregnancy until delivery did not alter body composition or cardiometabolic risk markers in the children. Subgroup analyses showed that, if started ≥3 mo before conception, supplementation may increase adiposity among female children.

Dietary micronutrient intakes among women of reproductive age in Mumbai slums.

OBJECTIVES: To (1) describe micronutrient intakes among women of reproductive age living in Mumbai slums; (2) assess the adequacy of these intakes compared with reference values; (3) identify important dietary sources of micronutrients. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Participants were 6426 non-pregnant women aged 16-39 years, registered in a randomised controlled trial of a food-based intervention set in the Bandra, Khar and Andheri areas of Mumbai, India. Cross-sectional quantified food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) data were collected. Vitamin (n = 9) and mineral (n = 6) intakes were calculated and analysed in relation to dietary reference values (DRVs). Important dietary sources were identified for each micronutrient. RESULTS: Median intakes of all micronutrients, except vitamin E, were below the FAO/WHO reference nutrient intake (RNI). Intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin A and folate were furthest from the RNI. For seven of the micronutrients, over half of the women had intakes below the lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI); this figure was over 75% for calcium and riboflavin. The majority of women (93%) had intakes below the EAR for 5 or more micronutrients, and 64% for 10 or more. Adolescents had lower intakes than women aged >19 years. Less than 1% of adult women and no adolescents met the EAR for all micronutrients. Animal source foods and micronutrient-rich fruit and vegetables were consumed infrequently. CONCLUSIONS: These women had low intakes of multiple micronutrients, increasing their risk of insufficiency. There is a need to determine the factors causing poor intakes, to direct interventions that improve diet quality and nutritional sufficiency.

A Daily Snack Containing Leafy Green Vegetables, Fruit, and Milk before and during Pregnancy Prevents Gestational Diabetes in a Randomized, Controlled Trial in Mumbai, India.

BACKGROUND: Prospective observational studies suggest that maternal diets rich in leafy green vegetables and fruit may help prevent gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to test whether increasing women's dietary intake of leafy green vegetables, fruit, and milk before conception and throughout pregnancy reduced their risk of GDM. METHODS: Project SARAS ("excellent") (2006-2012) was a nonblinded, individually randomized, controlled trial in women living in slums in the city of Mumbai, India. The interventions included a daily snack made from leafy green vegetables, fruit, and milk for the treatment group or low-micronutrient vegetables (e.g., potato and onion) for the control group, in addition to the usual diet. Results for the primary outcome, birth weight, have been reported. Women were invited to take an oral-glucose-tolerance test (OGTT) at 28-32 wk gestation to screen for GDM (WHO 1999 criteria). The prevalence of GDM was compared between the intervention and control groups, and Kernel density analysis was used to compare distributions of 120-min plasma glucose concentrations between groups. RESULTS: Of 6513 women randomly assigned, 2291 became pregnant; of these, 2028 reached a gestation of 28 wk, 1008 (50%) attended for an OGTT, and 100 (9.9%) had GDM. In an intention-to-treat analysis, the prevalence of GDM was reduced in the treatment group (7.3% compared with 12.4% in controls; OR: 0.56; 95% CI: 0.36, 0.86; P = 0.008). The reduction in GDM remained significant after adjusting for prepregnancy adiposity and fat or weight gain during pregnancy. Kernel density analysis showed that this was explained by the fact that fewer women in the treatment group had a 2-h glucose concentration in the range 7.5-10.0 mmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: In low-income settings, in which women have a low intake of micronutrient-rich foods, improving dietary micronutrient quality by increasing intake of leafy green vegetables, fruit, and/or milk may have an important protective effect against the development of GDM. This trial was registered at www.controlled-trials.com as ISRCTN62811278.

Improving women's diet quality preconceptionally and during gestation: effects on birth weight and prevalence of low birth weight--a randomized controlled efficacy trial in India (Mumbai Maternal Nutrition Project).

BACKGROUND: Low birth weight (LBW) is an important public health problem in undernourished populations. OBJECTIVE: We tested whether improving women's dietary micronutrient quality before conception and throughout pregnancy increases birth weight in a high-risk Indian population. DESIGN: The study was a nonblinded, individually randomized controlled trial. The intervention was a daily snack made from green leafy vegetables, fruit, and milk (treatment group) or low-micronutrient vegetables (potato and onion) (control group) from ≥ 90 d before pregnancy until delivery in addition to the usual diet. Treatment snacks contained 0.69 MJ of energy (controls: 0.37 MJ) and 10-23% of WHO Reference Nutrient Intakes of ß-carotene, riboflavin, folate, vitamin B-12, calcium, and iron (controls: 0-7%). The primary outcome was birth weight. RESULTS: Of 6513 women randomly assigned, 2291 women became pregnant, 1962 women delivered live singleton newborns, and 1360 newborns were measured. In an intention-to-treat analysis, there was no overall increase in birth weight in the treatment group (+26 g; 95% CI: -15, 68 g; P = 0.22). There was an interaction (P < 0.001) between the allocation group and maternal prepregnant body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)) [birth-weight effect: -23, +34, and +96 g in lowest (<18.6), middle (18.6-21.8), and highest (>21.8) thirds of BMI, respectively]. In 1094 newborns whose mothers started supplementation ≥ 90 d before pregnancy (per-protocol analysis), birth weight was higher in the treatment group (+48 g; 95% CI: 1, 96 g; P = 0.046). Again, the effect increased with maternal BMI (-8, +79, and +113 g; P-interaction = 0.001). There were similar results for LBW (intention-to-treat OR: 0.83; 95% CI: 0.66, 1.05; P = 0.10; per-protocol OR = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.59, 0.98; P = 0.03) but no effect on gestational age in either analysis. CONCLUSIONS: A daily snack providing additional green leafy vegetables, fruit, and milk before conception and throughout pregnancy had no overall effect on birth weight. Per-protocol and subgroup analyses indicated a possible increase in birth weight if the mother was supplemented ≥ 3 mo before conception and was not underweight. This trial was registered at www.controlled-trials.com/isrctn/ as ISRCTN62811278.

Early life factors and type 2 diabetes in south India: Do the associations change with age?

BACKGROUND: Studies since the early 1990s have shown that birth size can be a predictor of the development of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In the present study, we evaluated changes in the strength of associations between T2DM and birth size and maternal weight with age. METHODS: In 1993-1994 (t0), 509 men and women (mean age 46 years) who had been born in Holdsworth Memorial Hospital were screened for diabetes, with increased diabetes risk identified in those who were shorter at birth and those born to heavier mothers. Ten years later (t10), the screening was repeated in 266 subjects who were non-diabetic at t0 (70% of survivors). RESULTS: At t10, 56 new cases of diabetes were found. The incidence of diabetes decreased with increasing birth length (odds ratio (OR) = 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.84-0.97/cm birth length; P = 0.006) after adjustment for sex, age, socioeconomic status, family history, and current body mass index. Overall, there were no significant differences in OR for the association between birth length and diabetes at t0 compared with t10, but limiting analysis to subjects with normal glucose tolerance at t0 resulted in a stronger association at t10 (OR = 0.71, 95% CI 0.58-0.87) than at t0 (OR = 0.95, 95% CI 0.86-1.05; P = 0.015 for the difference). There was a positive correlation between maternal weight and incident disease at t0 (OR = 1.08, 95% CI 1.03-1.14; P = 0.001), but not at t10 (OR = 0.98/kg, 95% CI 0.92-1.05; P = 0.6; P = 0.02 for the difference). CONCLUSIONS: Short birth length remains a risk factor for diabetes. Changes in the effects of birth length and maternal weight on diabetes risk with age may indicate different causal pathways. These findings require replication in studies with more accurate dating of the onset of diabetes.